Work and Heat in

Thermodynamic Processes
Thus, in thermodynamics, positive work represents a transfer of
energy out of the system.
A gas expands quasistatically (slowly) from state i to
state f. The work done by the gas equals the area under the
PV curve.
The work done by a gas as it is taken from an
initial state to a final state depends on the path
between these states.
In the process described in Fig.a the pressure of the gas is
first reduced from Pi to Pf by cooling at constant volume Vi
and the gas then expands from Vi to Vf at constant pressure
Pf . The work done along this path is Pf (Vf – Vi).

In Fig. b, the work done by a gas as it is taken from an

initial state to a final state is Pi (Vf – Vi), which is greater
than that for the process described in Fig.a.

For the process shown in Fig. c, where both V and P change

continuously, the work done has some value intermediate
between the values obtained in the first two processes.
Therefore, we recognize that the work depends on the
path taken as the gas goes from I to f.
Thus, since heat and work depend on the path, neither
quantity is independently conserved during a
thermodynamic process.
(a) A gas at temperature Ti expands slowly while absorbing energy
from a reservoir in order to maintain a constant temperature. (b) A
gas expands rapidly into an evacuated region
after a membrane is broken.
The initial and final states of the ideal gas in
Figure. a are identical to the initial and final
states in Figure.b, but the paths are different.

In the first case, the gas does work on the

piston, and energy is transferred slowly to the
gas.
In the second case, no energy is transferred,
and the value of the work done is zero
(Adiabatic).
 The Case of Figure (B) Is Adiabatic

Because the gas does not exert a force through a

distance on the surroundings, it does no work on the
surroundings as it expands.

In addition, no energy is transferred to or from

the gas by heat because the container is insulated
from its surroundings.

Thus, in this adiabatic process, the system has

changed but the surroundings have not.
We conclude that the quantity Q – W is determined completely by
the initial and final states of the system, and we call this quantity
the change in the internal energy of the system. Although Q and
W both depend on the path, the quantity Q - W is independent of
the path
Quantities which describe the state of the system such as
internal energy U, pressure P, volume V, temperature T,
and mass m or number of moles n are called state
variables. Q and W are not state variables.
Because the gas expands, Vf >Vi and the
value for the work done by the gas is
positive, as we expect. If the gas is
compressed, Vf< Vi then and the work
done by the gas is negative.
The law of the conservation of energy requires that the
amount of energy that leaves the sample equal the
amount of energy that enters the water.

This technique is called calorimetry, and devices in

which this energy transfer occurs are called
calorimeters.

Conservation of energy allows us to write the equation

which simply states that the energy leaving the
hot part of the system by heat is equal to that
entering the cold part of the system.
 Conduction is a heat transfer process which
occurs when there is a temperature gradiant
across the body.
That is conduction of heat occurs only when the
body's temperature is not uniform

If the heat flow is along x (that is along the rod), and we

define the temperature gradient as dT/dx, then a quantity of heat
dQ will flow in a time dt along the rod.
The rate of flow of heat along the rod, sometimes called the
heat current is given by
The minus sign denotes that heat flow in the direction of decreasing temperature.
Metals are generally better thermal conductors
than nonmetals. This is because in metals there
are some electrons more or less free to move
through the material and transport energy from
one region to another.

Nonmetals are poor heat conductors because

they do not contain free electrons. It is not
surprising that gases are also poor heat
conductors in view of their dilute nature.
In engineering practice, the term L/k for a particular
substance is referred to as the R value of the
material.

Thus, the forementioned Equation, reduces to

Rate of flow of heat = [A (T2 – T1)] / R

For a group of materials the equation becomes

Heat convection is the heat transfer as the result of the
actual movement of a heated substance from one place to
another. Convection above a hot surface occurs because
hot air expands, becomes less dense, and rises. Hot water
is likewise less dense than cold water and rises, causing
convection currents which transport energy.
Convection currents are set up in a
room heated by a radiator.
Most heat from an object is radiated in the infra-red region
of the spectrum, which is not visible to the human eye. As
the material gets hotter, the radiation is emitted at shorter
wavelengths; first red, then yellow, then white. At
extremely high temperatures the radiation can even be
blue or ultraviolet.
A body radiates and also absorbs electromagnetic
radiation at rates given by the above equation. If the
body is at temperature T and its surroundings are at
a temperature T0, the net power gained (or lost) as a
result of radiation is given by
When a body is hotter than its surroundings, it
radiates more energy than it absorbs, and so it cools.

An ideal radiator, or ideal black body, (e=1) is one

which absorbs all of the energy incident on it (and hence
reflects no energy). Therefore, a black body is also a
good emitter of radiant energy.

Likewise, a highly reflecting surface (e= 0) is a poor

emitter of radiant