Compressible Flow

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 Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

• distinguish between incompressible and compressible flows, and know when the
approximations associated with assuming fluid incompressibility are acceptable.
• understand some important features of different categories of compressible flows of
ideal gases.
• explain speed of sound and Mach number and their practical significance.
• solve useful problems involving isentropic flows.
• move on to understanding more advanced concepts about compressible flows.
Ideal Gas Relationships

(Thermodynamics Review)
Example

Calculate the
(a) change in internal energy between sections (1) and (2),
(b) change in enthalpy between sections (1) and (2),
(c) change in density between sections (1) and (2), and
(d) change in entropy between sections (1) and (2).
 Mach Number and Speed of Sound (sec B)
• What we perceive as sound consists of weak pressure pulses that move through air

• Consider an infinitesimally thin, weak pressure pulse moving at the speed of sound c through a fluid
at rest

• Select infinitesimally thin control volume that moves with the pressure pulse (a)

• Fix coordinate system in the control volume, i.e. consider fluid passing stationary control volume (b)

notes
 Mach Number and Speed of Sound
• What we perceive as sound consists of weak pressure pulses that move through air

• Consider an infinitesimally thin, weak pressure pulse moving at the speed of sound c through a fluid
at rest

• Select infinitesimally thin control volume that moves with the pressure pulse (a)

• Fix coordinate system in the control volume, i.e. consider fluid passing stationary control volume (b)

notes
 Mach Number and Speed of Sound
• What we perceive as sound consists of weak pressure pulses that move through air

• Consider an infinitesimally thin, weak pressure pulse moving at the speed of sound c through a fluid
at rest

• Select infinitesimally thin control volume that moves with the pressure pulse (a)

• Fix coordinate system in the control volume, i.e. consider fluid passing stationary control volume (b)

• Apply continuity equation and linear momentum equation to the flow through the control volume

notes
 Speed of Sound

Continuity equation:  Ac       A  c  V 

or c  c  V  c   V 

Neglecting higher order terms:  V  c (a)

Momentum equation: ccA   c  V      c  V  A  pA   p   p  A

Using continuity equation: ccA   c  V   Ac   pA

p
or  V  (b)
c

p
From (a) and (b), speed of sound: c

 Mach Number and Speed of Sound
p
Speed of sound: c


 p 
Assuming isentropic flow: c  
   s

For ideal gas: c  kRT

dp  p 
Introducing bulk modulus of elasticity: Ev    
d     s

Ev
speed of sound in any fluid (gases of liquids): c


Values of speed of sound are tabulated for water and air

In problem solution speed of sound must always be
calculated for given conditions
 Categories of Compressible Flow

• Consider the emission of weak pressure pulses from a point source moving in a stationary fluid (or
let fluid flow past a stationary point source) with velocity :

– V=0

– V<c

– V=c

– V>c

• Categories of compressible flow:

– Incompressible flow: Ma <= 0.3. Unrestricted, nearly symmetrical and instantaneous pressure
communication.

– Compressible subsonic flow: 0.3 < Ma < 1.0. Unrestricted but noticeably asymmetrical pressure
communication.

– Compressible supersonic flow: Ma => 1.0. Formation of Mach wave; pressure communication restricted to
zone of action

aircraft
Example
Aircraft cruising at 1000-m elevation, z, above you
moves past in a fly-by. How many seconds after the
plane passes overhead do you expect to wait before you
hear the aircraft if it is moving with a Mach number equal
to 1.5 and the ambient temperature is 20°C?
Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
 Isentropic Flow of and Ideal Gas

• Consider steady, one-dimensional, isentropic flow of an ideal gas with constant specific heat.

• Steady flow – no shaft work

• One-dimensional flow – velocity and fluid property changes in the streamwise direction.

• Isentropic flow – frictionless and adiabatic

• Ideal gas relationships:

cp
p   RT c p  cv  R k
cv

Rk R p
cp  cv   const
k 1 k 1  k
Effect of Variations in Flow Cross-Sectional Area

How fluid density and flow velocity change with axial location in a variable area duct
when fluid is ideal gas and flow is steady and isentropic?

notes
Effect of Variations in Flow Cross-Sectional Area

dV dA 1

V 
A 1  Ma 2 
d dA Ma 2

 
A 1  Ma 2 
 Effect of Variations in Flow Cross-Sectional Area

dA
dV
A

  1  Ma 2
V


• Converging-diverging duct:
– accelerates subsonic flow to supersonic (acts as a nozzle)

– and decelerate supersonic flow to subsonic (acts as a diffuser)

 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow
Stagnation state - zero flow velocity attained isentropically (Ma = 0)

Can be achieved by converging-diverging duct or Pitot-static tube

Stagnation state of the fluid is used as a reference state for compressible flow
calculations
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow

Temperature, pressure and density variation

k 1
  k 1   k 1

T 1 p  1    1 
      
T0  k 1  p0   k  1  2  0   k  1  2 
1   Ma
2
 1   2  Ma   1   2  Ma 
 2         

graph
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow

Temperature, pressure and density variation

k 1
  k 1   k 1

T 1 p  1    1 
      
T0  k 1  p0   k  1  2  0   k  1  2 
1   Ma
2
 1   2  Ma   1   2  Ma 
 2         

Analyze compressible flow thru nozzle

using T-s diagram an above equations

How to produce flow trough converging-diverging duct?

graph
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow

Temperature, pressure and density variation

k 1
  k 1   k 1

T 1 p  1    1 
      
T0  k 1  p0   k  1  2  0   k  1  2 
1   Ma
2
 1   2  Ma   1   2  Ma 
 2         

Analyze compressible flow thru nozzle

using T-s diagram an above equations

How to produce flow trough converging-diverging

duct?

What is the critical state?

Converging-Diverging Duct Flow. Critical parameters

Flow parameters at critical state (Ma = 1)

k
p  2 
*
k 1
 
p0  k  1 

T* 2

T0 k  1

1
  2 
*
k 1

0  k  1 

For air (k = 1.4)

p* T* *
 0.528  0.833  0.634
p0 T0 0
Example
A converging duct passes air steadily from standard atmospheric conditions to a receiver pipe. The throat
flow cross-sectional area of the converging duct is 1x10-4 m2. Determine the mass flow rate through the duct
if the receiver pressure is (a) 80 kPa, (b) 40 kPa (abs) sketch temperature entropy diagrams for situations
(a) and (b)

notes
Example
A converging duct passes air steadily from standard atmospheric conditions to a receiver pipe. The throat
flow cross-sectional area of the converging duct is 1x10-4 m2. Determine the mass flow rate through the duct
if the receiver pressure is (a) 80 kPa, (b) 40 kPa (abs) sketch temperature entropy diagrams for situations
(a) and (b)

Assumptions: Flow is isentropic through converging

duct and air behaves as ideal gas with constant
specific heats
Solution

Mass flow rate m  th AthVth

Flow velocity at the throat Vth  Ma th cth  Ma th kRTth

th  1  k 1
Density at the throat  
0  1    k  1 2  Ma th2 

Tth 1
Temperature at the throat 
T0 1    k  1 2  Ma th2
Example (cntd)

pth  1  k 1
Mach number at the throat is obtained from  
p0  1    k  1 2  Ma th2 


Critical pressure p*  0.528 p0  0.528 patm  53.3 kPa (abs)

If pres  p* then pth  pres . If pres  p* then pth  p* and flow is choked

(a) pres  p* pth  pres  80 kPa

Ma th  0.587 th  1.04 kg/m 3 Tth  269 K Vth  193 m/s
m  0.0201 kg/s

(b) pres  p* pth  p*  53.3 kPa

Ma th  1 th  0.78 kg/m 3 Tth  240 K Vth  310 m/s
m  0.0242 kg/s
Example (cntd)

Temperature-entropy diagrams
(b) for flow situations (a) and (b) (c) for flow downstream from the exit of the converging duct
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow

Isentropic flow equations k 1

  k 1   k 1

T 1 p  1    1 
      
T0  k 1  p0   k  1  2  0   k  1  2 
1   Ma
2
 1   2  Ma   1   2  Ma 
 2         

have been used to construct tables and graphs of T/T0, p/p0 and /o for air (k = 1.4) as a function of
Mach number.
These graphs can also be used to solve compressible flow problems (Examples 11.6, 11.7)

notes
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow

Isentropic flow equations k 1

  k 1   k 1

T 1 p  1    1 
      
T0  k 1  p0   k  1  2  0   k  1  2 
1   Ma
2
 1   2  Ma   1   2  Ma 
 2         

have been used to construct tables and graphs of T/T0, p/p0 and /o for air (k = 1.4) as a function of
Mach number.
These graphs can also be used to solve compressible flow problems (Examples 11.6, 11.7)

The useful concept for isentropic duct flow is the ratio of local area, A, to critical area, A*, as a function of
Mach number:

k 1

1 1   k  1 2  Ma 
2 2 k 1
A
  
A* Ma  1   k  1 2 

Graph of this ratio is also shown in Figure

 Isentropic Choked Flow in a Converging-Diverging Duct with Subsonic Entry

Example 11.8

Air enters subsonically from standard atmosphere and flows isentropically through a choked
converging-diverging duct having a circular cross-section area, A, that varies with axial distance
from the throat, x, according to the formula
A  0.1  x 2
where A is in square meters and x is in meters. The duct extends from x  0.5 m to x  0.5 m.
For this flow situation, sketch the side view of the duct and graph the variation of Mach number,
static temperature to stagnation temperature ratio, and static pressure to stagnation pressure ratio,
through the duct from x  -0.5 m to x  0.5 m.

Solution

Radius of the duct

0.1  x 2
r .


Ratio of local area to throat area

A 0.1  x 2

A* 0.1 Side view of the duct
 Isentropic Choked Flow in a Converging-Diverging Duct with Subsonic Entry

Example 11.8 (cntd) back to normal shock

A/A* values are used to get values of Ma number, T/T0 and p/p0 from the graph
Results are given in table
With the air entering the choked converging-diverging duct subsonically, only one isentropic solution
exists for the converging portion of the duct. Flow becomes sonic at the throat.
Two isentropic solutions are possible for the diverging portion of the duct – one subsonic, the other
supersonic. If p/p0 is set at 0.98 at outlet (x = +0.5 m) the subsonic flow will occur. If p/p0 is set at 0.04 at
outlet (x = +0.5 m) the supersonic flow field will exist.
 Isentropic Choked Flow in a Converging-Diverging Duct with Supersonic Entry

Example 11.9

Repeat previous example with the air entering the choked converging-diverging duct supersonically
With the air entering the duct supesonically, a unique isentropic solution is obtained for the converging
portion of the duct. Flow decelerates to the sonic condition at the throat.
Two isentropic solutions obtained in the previous example for the diverging portion are still valid
 Isentropic Unchoked Flow in a Converging-Diverging Duct

Example 11.10

Repetition of the example for not choked converging-diverging duct shows that:
1. There are an infinite number of subsonic, isentropic flow solutions
2. There are an infinite number of supersonic flow solutions

Thus, variety of flow situations can occur for flow in a converging-diverging duct
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow

Isentropic flow solutions

(a) Subsonic to subsonic isentropic
flow (not choked)
(b) Subsonic to subsonic isentropic
flow (choked)
(c) Subsonic to supersonic
isentropic flow (choked)
(d) Supersonic to supersonic
isentropic flow (choked)
(e) Supersonic to subsonic
isentropic flow (choked)
(f) Supersonic to supersonic
isentropic flow (not choked)

a b c
 Converging-Diverging Duct Flow

Isentropic flow solutions

Variation with axial distance of (a) duct radius, (b) Mach number, (c) temperature, (d) pressure
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow
Nonisentropic choked flows
Converging-Diverging Duct Flow
Nonisentropic choked flows

grossly overexpanded

overexpanded

Ambient

underexpanded
Nonisentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
Adiabatic Constant-Area Duct Flow with Friction
(Fanno Flow)

V2
h  h0  constant
2

Adiabatic constant-area flow

notes
Adiabatic Constant-Area Duct Flow with Friction
(Fanno Flow)

V2
h  h0  constant
2

 V 
2
T2
T  T0  constant
2c p  p R
2 2


Adiabatic constant-area flow

 Fanno Flow

 V 
2
T2 T p
T  T0  constant s  s1  c p ln  R ln
2c p  p 2 R 2  T1 p1

T-s diagram for Fanno flow

back notes
 Fanno Flow
ds c p  cp 1 
  R 2   Va  kRTa
dT T V T

Maximum entropy corresponds to sonic condition

Fanno Flow
 Fanno Flow
For Fanno flow, the Mach number is a function of the distance to the critical state

1 1  Ma  k  1   k  1 2  Ma  f  l  l 
2 2 *

 ln  2 

k Ma 2 2k 1   k  1 2  Ma  D

For any two section in a Fanno flow (figure):

f  l *  l2  f  l *  l1  f
   l1  l2 
D D D

For Fanno flow, the length of duct needed to produce a given change in Mach number can be
determined from above equations or graph
Thermodynamic and flow properties can also be determined for Fanno flow
12 12
   
 k  1 V   k  1 2 Ma  1   k  1 2 
2
T 2 p
     
 k 1  V *   k 1  p* Ma   k  1 
T*
1  2
1 2 
1 Ma 2 
 Ma   2    2 
Ma
 2   
Frictionless Constant-Area Duct Flow with Heat
Transfer (Rayleigh Flow)
Frictionless Constant-Area Duct Flow with Heat
Transfer (Rayleigh Flow)

 V 
2
RT T p
p  constant s  s1  c p ln  R ln
p T1 p1

Rayleigh line
Rayleigh Flow
dV  q 1

V 
c pT 1  Ma 2 

notes
Rayleigh Flow

notes
 Rayleigh Flow
Using the state of the Rayleigh flow at point a as the reference state (Ma =1) we can obtain
equations to quantify the Rayleigh flow (see also graph)

T  1  k  Ma   1  k  Ma 
2
p 1 k  V
     Ma  2 
pa 1  k Ma2 Ta  1  k Ma2  a Va  1  k Ma 

 k 1 
2  k  1 Ma 2 1  Ma 2 
T0
  2 
 
2
T0 ,a 1  k Ma 2

k  k 1
p0

1  k   2 1  k  1 Ma2 
  
p0,a  
1  k Ma2  k  1  2 
 Normal Shock Waves
Consider steady compressible flow of
ideal gas across a normal shock wave

V2
h  h0  constant
2
 Normal Shock Waves

Consider steady compressible flow of

ideal gas across a normal shock wave

Continuity, linear momentum, and energy equations for thins flow are:

 V  RT  V  T 2
2 2

V  constant; p  constant; T  T0 =constant

p 
2c p p 2 R 2 
Thus, the momentum equation for Rayleigh flow and the energy equation for Fanno flow as
well as Tds equation are valid for flow across normal shocks
 Normal Shock Waves
For a given density-velocity product (V), gas (R, k), and conditions at the inlet of the normal shock
(Tx, px, and sx), the conditions downstream of the chock (state y) will be on both a Fanno line and a
Rayleigh line that pass through the inlet state (state x)

Relationship between a normal shock and Fanno and Rayleigh lines

notes
 Normal Shock Waves
Flow across a normal shock wave can only proceed from supersonic to subsonic flow

(a) Normal shock in a Fanno flow. (b) Normal shock in a Rayleigh flow.
(c) Normal shock in a frictionless and adiabatic flow.

notes
 Normal Shock Waves
Ratios of thermodynamic properties across a normal shock are functions of the Mach numbers (see
also graph)

py 1  k Ma 2x Ty 1   k  1 2 Ma 2x
 
px 1  k Ma2y Tx 1   k  1 2  Ma 2y

Ma 2x   2  k  1 
Ma 2y 
 2k  k  1  Ma 2x  1

Flow changes from supersonic to subsonic across a normal shock

notes
Normal Shock Waves

notes
End of ‘Compressible Flow’
References
back
back
 k
p2  p1  k  1  k 1
 1  Ma12   1 (compressible) (3.25)
p1  2 

p2  p1 k Ma12
 (incompressible) (3.26)
p1 2
back
Variation of the drag coefficient of a
sphere with Reynolds number and
Mach number

back
Velocity of point source V = 0

back
 Velocity of point source V = 0

Radius of the wave emitted at time = twave: r  t  twave  c

Pressure waves at t = 3 s, V = 0

back
 Velocity of point source V = 0

Radius of the wave emitted at time = twave: r  t  twave  c

Pressure wave pattern is symmetrical

Observer anywhere in the pressure field

would hear the same sound frequency

Communication of pressure information is

unrestricted

Stationary point source and stationary fluid

are representative of incompressible flow

Pressure waves at t = 3 s, V = 0

back
 Velocity of point source V < c

Point source moves in fluid at rest

(or fluid moves past a stationary point source)

Pressure wave pattern is asymmetrical

Flow is subsonic and compressible

Doppler effect is observed

Pressure communication is unrestricted but

asymmetrical

Pressure waves at t = 3 s, V < c

back
 Velocity of point source V = c

Pressure waves are not present ahead

of the moving point source

Flow is sonic

Mach wave is formed

Pressure communication is restricted to

zone of action

Pressure waves at t = 3 s, V = c

back
Flow is supersonic Velocity of point source V > c

c 1
Mach cone is formed sin   
V Ma

There is significant pressure (density)

variation across the cone surface

Pressure waves at t = 3 s, V > c

back
back
back

back
back
 0.1  x 2 A 0.1  x 2
r 
 A* 0.1

back
back
back
back
Frictionless Constant-Area Duct Flow with Heat
Transfer (Rayleigh Flow)

Rayleigh flow
 Effect of Variations in Flow Cross-Sectional Area

Newton's second law dp 

1
2
 
 d V 2   dz  0
dp dV
for our case   (1)
V 2 V
From continuity equation m   AV  constant
d  dA dV dV d  dA
ln   ln A  ln V  constant   0    (2)
 A V V  A
dp  V 2  dA
Combining (1) and (2) 2 
1  (3)
V  dp d   A
 p 
With c   and Ma 
V
eqation (3) yields:
dp

1  Ma 
2

dA
(4)
   s c V 2 A
dV dA 1
(1) and (4) give  (5)
V A 1  Ma 2  
d dA Ma 2
(2) and (5) give 
 
A 1  Ma 2 