CHEMISTRY OF THE

ELEMENTS IN THE
PERIODIC TABLE
Group Properties of
Elements
PERIODS & GROUPS
 Periods - horizontal rows
- there are 7 periods in the periodic table
- arranged in increasing atomic number
 Family/Group - vertical rows
- elements in a group have similar
chemical properties
Group A (occupying the s and p – block) are called
representative elements; whereas Group B elements
(occupying the d-block) are called transition metal groups.
GROUPS OF ELEMENTS
 Group VIIIA/0 : Inert gases
 Group IA : Alkali Metals
 Group IIA : Alkaline earth metals
 Group VIA : Chalcogens
 Group VIIA : Halogens
 Group IB : Coinage Metals
 Group IIB : Volatile Metals
 Transition elements – those elements in which a d-
orbital is filled partially, starting at Group IIIB and
ending at Group IIB.
 Lanthanides and Actinides – inner transition metals
 Metallic elements are protein precipitants, the major
exception being the alkali metals. Being protein
precipitants, metals especially heavy metals are toxic.
 Amphoteric – equally acidic and basic
BRIDGE ELEMENTS
 Diagonals/Bridge elements – 1st member of the
family can be quite unlike to the other members. It
more closely resembles the second member of the
adjacent group to the right.
IONIZATION ENERGY
 Ionization Potential – measure of the energy
required to remove an electron by overcoming the
attractive forces of the nucleus.

 Metals - ↓ IP , readily form cations

 Non- metals - ↑IP
ELECTRONEGATIVITY
 Electronegativity – Attraction of the nucleus for an
electron.

Metals - ↓ electronegativity, thus electropositive

Nonmetals - ↑ electronegativity especially halogens
- attract additional electrons to form
anions
GROUP VIIIA/ 0 ELEMENTS
Noble Gases
Group VIIIA/ 0 Elements
 All noble gases except Rn occur in the atmosphere.
 Ar, Ne, Kr, and Xe are produced from liquid air by
fractional distillation.
 Radon is recovered from the natural decay products
of radium.
 The inert gases are monoatomic, colorless, and
odourless.
 Inert gases, except helium, follows the octet rule.
HELIUM
 2nd most lightest gas (low density and solubility)
 It is chemically inert. It does not support combustion
 Toxicity (inhalation): Donald duck-like sound
 Use:
 Carrier/diluent for medically important gases
 Component of artificial gas (80 parts He, 20 parts O2)
 Container: Brown
NEON
 Aka: “New”
 Used in advertising
ARGON
 Aka: “Lazy”
 Most abundant and most widely distributed among all
noble gases.
 By-product of the fractionalization of liquid air for the
production of oxygen and nitrogen.
 Substitute of nitrogen in providing inert atmosphere.
 It is used to prevent the blackening of light bulbs.
KRYPTON
 Aka: “Hidden”
 Least abundant among noble gases
 Have inhalational anesthetic activity.
 The sparsity of these elements in nature imposes
severe limitations on such use.
XENON
 Aka: “Stranger”
 Investigational with inhalational anesthetic activity.
 Both Kr and Xe has fairly high lipid solubility
 Xenon is virtually equal with ethylene in terms of
anesthetic activity.
RADON
 Aka: “Niton”
 Synthetic noble gas
 Used in the treatment of cervical cancer
 It emits alpha particles
 Recovered from the natural decay products of Radium
GROUP IA ELEMENTS
Alkali Metals
Group IA Elements
 Comprises the most reactive of all the metallic elements
(never found in nature in pure form).
 ↑ activity with increasing atomic number (Cs>K>Na)
 Hydroxides give alkaline solutions (alkalinity increases
with increasing atomic number).
 Degree of solvation decreases with increasing atomic
number.
 Have low melting points.
 Stable chemically; does not form complexes.
Group IA Elements
 Alkali metal salts of inorganic acids (ex. NaCl, KCl,
KBr) are ionic, usually colorless and soluble in water.
 Aqueous solutions of the alkali metal salts are neutral
to basic.
 Most distinguishing properties of the salts and their
solutions are due to the anion present. (e.g. color)
 Only lithium and sodium salts are regularly hydrated
in crystalline form. (ex. Li2B4O7.3H2O (Lithium borate))
HYDROGEN
 Aka: ________________ air
 Lightest element
 Isotopes:
 Protium – most abundant
 Deuterium – heavy hydrogen
 Tritium – radioactive
LITHIUM
 Aka: “Earth”
 Lightest of all metals
 Bridge element (resembles Mg, to some extent Ca, more
closely than Na)
 Pharmacological action:
 Depressant
 Diuretic
 Non-Pharmacological action:
 Heat-exchanger in aircons
LITHIUM
 Free metal forms are less reactive with water.
 Burning it forms the normal oxide (Li2O)
 Li2CO3 and Li3PO4 are slightly water soluble.
 LiCl is soluble to organic solvents
 Li has no physiological role and is toxic.
LITHIUM
 Important compounds:
 Lithium bromide – depressant
 Lithium carbonate (Lithase®)
 DOC for ___________
SODIUM
 Aka: “Natrium”
 Most abundant extracellular cation
 Used with caution in the treatment of cardiac and
renal condition in which edema is a problem.
 Cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical utility
of organic medicaments.
 Na compounds are widely used in pharmacy and
medicine (ex. NaCl); sodium salts are selected more
frequently due to economic basis.
SODIUM
 IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:
 Sodium acetate (CH3COONa)
 Diuretic
 Urinary and systemic alkalizer
 Antacid

 Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

 Aka: “Baking Soda” Side effects:
 Systemic antacid a. Systemic Alkalosis
b. Rebound Hyperacidity
 Carbonating agent c. Edema
SODIUM
 Sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4)
 Aka: “Fleet Enema”
 Uses: (a) Cathartic; (b) Source of phosphate ion

 Sodium bisulfite (NaHSO3)

 water-soluble antioxidant (preservative)
 Sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)
 Aka: Soda ash (anhydrous form); Trona (dihydrate form);
Washing soda, soda crystals or sal soda (decahydrate form).
 Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Source of carbonate ion; (c) Carbonating
agent
SODIUM
 Sodium chloride (NaCl)
 Aka: rock salt, table salt, soler salt
 Uses:
 Electrolyte replenisher (to prevent or treat dehydration)
 Examples:
 NSS (0.9% NaCl)
 Ringer’s Solution – NaCl, KCl, CaCl2
 Lactated Ringer’s Solution (Hartmann’s Solution)
– NaCl, KCl, CaCl2, Sodium lactate
 Tonicity adjusting agent
 Condiment
 Preservative
SODIUM
 Sodium citrate (Na3C6H5O7)
 Uses:
 Alkalinizer
 Buffer (resists changes in pH)
 Diuretic
 Expectorant
 Anticoagulant
 Sequestering Agent in Benedict’s Solution

 Sodium fluoride (NaF)

 Uses: Anticariogenic (2% solution)
SODIUM
 Sodium iodide (NaI)
 Uses: (a) Expectorant; (b) Antifungal; (c) Iodine solubilizer
 Sodium lactate
 Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Diuretic
 Sodium nitrite (NaNO2)
 Treatment of cyanide poisoning
 Antioxidant
 Used to preserve the red color or meat
 Sodium nitrate (NaNO3)
 Aka: “Chile Salt Peter”
 Use/s: Meat preservative; Vasodilator
SODIUM
 Sodium sulfate (Na2SO4)
 Aka: “Glauber’s salt” – a decahydrate
 Use: Cathartic
 Sodium tartrate (Na2C4H4O6)
 Use: Primary standard for Karl-Fischer reagent for
_____________________
 Sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN)
 Hypotensive agent
 Sodium thiosulfate (Na2S2O3)
 Aka: Hypochlor, Photographer’s hypo
 Use/s: Treatment of cyanide poisoning with sodium nitrite
POTASSIUM
 Aka: “Kalium”
 Most abundant intracellular cation
 K salts are generally less deliquescent compared to Na
salts
 Pharmacologic action:
 Diuretic
 Important in muscular contraction
 Deficiency: Hypokalemia – due to excessive loss of body
fluids and electrolytes which causes muscular paralysis.
 Sources: Avocado, Banana
POTASSIUM
 IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:
 Potassium acetate (CH3COOK)
 Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Diuretic; (c) Urinary and systemic alkalizer

 Potassium bicarbonate (KHCO3)

 Uses: (a) Sytemic antacid; (b) Carbonating agent; (c) Source of
bicarbonate ion
 Potassium bitartrate (KHC4H4O6)
 Aka: Cream of tartar, creamor
 Use: Laxative
POTASSIUM
 Potassium bromide (KBr)
 Uses:
 Depressant
 Used in the preparation of samples for infrared analysis

 Potassium carbonate (K2CO3)

 Aka: Potash, perlash, salt of peter
 Uses: (a) Antacid; (b) Carbonating agent; (c) Source of carbonate
ion
 Potassium chlorate (KClO)
 Uses: (a) oxidizing agent; (b) component in toothpastes, gargles and
mouthwash; (c) has deodorant action
POTASSIUM
 Potassium chloride (KCl)
 Aka: “Kalium chloratum”
 Uses: Electrolyte replenisher (Note: Should be infused slowly. Used
in lethal injections and is irritating to the GI tract)
 Potassium citrate
 Uses: (a) Diuretic; (b) Expectorant; (c) Diaphoretic
 Potassium hydroxide (KOH)
 Aka: Caustic potash, lye potash
 Use: Saponifying agent used in the preparation of soft or liquid
soap.
POTASSIUM
 Potassium iodide (KI)
 Aka: “Kalium jodatum”
 Uses:
 Expectorant (due to iodine ion)
 Used in the treatment of goiter
 Antifungal and Iodine solubilizer

 Potassium nitrate (KNO3)

 Aka: salt peter, salt prunelle, salitre
 Uses: Diuretic and meat preservative
POTASSIUM
 Potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
 Aka: “Mineral chameleon”
 Uses:
 Oxidizing agent
 Antiseptic (0.02%)
 Treatment for strychnine poisoning

 Potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4)

 Uses: Cathartic
 Potassium sodium tartrate (KNaC4H4O6)
 Aka: Rochelle salt, sal signette
 Uses: (a) cathartic; (b) sequestering agent for Fehling’s solution
POTASSIUM
 Potassium thiocyanate (KSCN)
 Use: Hypotensive agent
 Sulfurated potash
 Aka: Liver of sulfur, heparis sulfuris
 It is a mixture of potassium sulfide, potassium polysulfide and
potassium thiosulfate
 Used in the preparation of white lotion
 Used as a parasiticide and treatment of acne and scabies
CESIUM and RUBIDIUM
 CESIUM:
 Catalyst in the polymerization of resin
 No pharmaceutical significance
 CsCl – used in density gradient centrifugation

 RUBIDIUM:
 Rubidium and its cation are very similar in behaviour to potassium.
 Rb and Cs has no application in pharmacy and medicine at this
time.
AMMONIUM
 Hypothetical alkali metal
 Conjugate base of ammonia
 Pharmacologic action:
 Diuretic
 Buffer
 Expectorant (like _______________)
 Anti-cariogenic (like ______________)
AMMONIUM
 NH3 coordinated readily with a proton to form the NH4+1
 Resembles K
 Ammonium reacts with bases to liberate NH3
 Ammonium salts of bitartrate, chlorplatinate and perchlorate
are insoluble in water.
 Ammonium hydroxide – solution of ammonia in water. It is
basic.
 Solutions of ammonium salts are acidic. (ex. NH4Cl)
AMMONIUM
 Pharmacologic category of ammonium ion:
 Acid-base equilibrium of the body
 Diuretic
 Expectorant
 Anticariogenic

 Ammonia is used as a urinary alkalizer

 Ammonia is a volatile substance
AMMONIUM
 IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:
 Ammonium bromide (NH4Br)
 Use: Sedative depressant
 Ammonium carbonate ((NH4)2CO3)
 Aka: sal volatile, hartshorn, preston salt, baker’s ammonia
 Use:
 Expectorant – stimulate the flow of respiratory secretions. Mild
emetics can be used as an expectorant.
 Antacid
 Respiratory stimulant
AMMONIUM
 Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl)
 Aka: Muriate of hartshorn
 Use:
 Expectorant
 Diuretic
 Urinary acidifier

 Aromatic Ammonia Spirit

 Aka: spirit of sal volatile, spirit of hartshorn
 A mixture of ammonium carbonate and strong ammonia solution
 Used as a respiratory stimulant (to revive unconscious patients who
have fainted).
AMMONIUM
 HgNH2Cl
 Aka: white precipitate
 Use: topical anti-infective
 Ammonium iodide (NH4I)
 Uses:
 Source of iodide
 Expectorant
 Antifungal
 Ammonium acetate (NH4CH3COO)
 Aka: Spirit of minderesus
 Use: Styptic
GROUP IB ELEMENTS
Coinage Metals
Group IB Elements
 Can occur in free metal state
 These metals are very malleable.
 The hydroxides and salts of these metals are
insoluble in water.
 Central units of chelates/complexes
 Comparison of Group IA and IB Metals
Properties Alkali Metals Coinage Metals
Occurrence Not free in nature Free in nature and are easily
recovered from their compounds by
reduction
Chemical reactivity Very reactive chemically Not very reactive; can be displaced
easily by other metals
Properties of oxides and hydroxides Strongly basic Weakly basic except for Ag2O
Number of valence electrons Univalent Univalent for Ag, multivalent for Cu
and Au
Ion formation Simple cation (not in complex In complex anions and complex
anions) & not complex cations with cations with ammonia
ammonia
Oxidation potential Rapidly oxidize in air Copper slowly oxidizes in air but
may be oxidized rapidly in finely
divided state or when heated with
oxygen
COPPER
 Aka: “Cuprum”
 Only reddish metal
 Component of hemocyanin and cytochrome oxidase
 3rd most malleable metal and 3rd best conductor of electricity
 2 important alloys:
 Brass (Cu and Zn) and Bronze (Cu and Sn)
 Pharmacologic actions:
 Protein precipitant
 Enhances the physiological utilization of iron
 Toxicity: Wilson’s disease (Antidote: Penicillamine)
COPPER
 Cu is an essential trace element.
 Cu enhances the physiological
utilization of iron.
 Cu induces emesis. Other external uses of Cu
 It occurs in the respiratory pigment, compounds:
• Fungicide
hemocyanin and many enzymes. • Insecticide
• Algaecide
• Astringent
• Bacteriostatic
• Pediculocide
COPPER
 IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:
 Cupric sulfate (CuSO4 . 5H2O)
 Aka: blue vitriol, blue stone
 Uses: Component of benedict’s solution, barfoed’s reagent and fehling’s
reagent
 Antidote for phosphorus poisoning
 Increases hematinic activity if added with iron
 Ingredient of Bordeaux mixture (used as a fungicide)

 Copper acetoarsenate ([Cu3(AsO3)2 . Cu(C2H3O2)2])

 Aka: Paris green
 Use: Insecticide
SILVER
 Aka: “Argentum”, Shining bright
 It has an oligodynamic action
 Ag has the ability to precipitate proteins (ex. silver
nitrate)
 Toxicity: Argyria (esp. from soluble silver salts)
 Antidote: NSS (Normal Saline Solution)
SILVER
 Most Ag+1 are insoluble or slightly soluble in water.
 Ag compounds are light sensitive and they must be stored in
light-resistant bottles.
 Ag ion readily reduces to elemental silver.
 Ag can be used as an astringent, antiseptic, corrosive and
protein precipitant.
SILVER
 IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:
 A. Soluble Compounds
 Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
 Aka: Lapiz infernulariz, lunar caustic, indelible ink, caustic pencil
 Uses:
 Treatment for warts
 Eye antiseptic for newborn babies of mothers with gonorrhoea (1% solution)
 Wet dressing for 3rd degree burns (0.5%)
 Ammoniacal silver nitrate (Ag(NH3)2NO3)
 Uses:
 Dental protective
 Ingredient for tollen’s reagent (test for the presence of aldehydes)
SILVER
 B. Insoluble Compounds
 Silver iodide (AgI)
 Uses: poisonous and germicide
 Ag proteinate
 Mild Ag proteinate
 Aka: Argyrol
 Use: Antiseptic for the eye (10 - 23/25% Ag)
 Strong Ag proteinate
 Aka: Protargol
 Use: Strong germicide for ears and throat (7.5 - 8.5% Ag)
 Colloidal Ag proteinate
 Aka: Colargol
 Use: Used as a general germicide (18 - 22% Ag)
GOLD
 Aka: “Aurum”, shining dawn, king of all metals
 Most malleable and most ductile
 Best conductor of electricity
 Gold toxicity: Gold dermatitis (Antidote: Dimercaprol)
 Dissolved by:
 Aqua regia (3 parts HCl + 1 part of HNO3)
 Selenic acid
 Bromine water
 Chlorine water
GOLD
 Two series of gold compounds exist: Au+1 & Au+3
 Au salts are unstable in heat and light; and are mild
reducing agents.
 Au compounds should be dispensed separately since
it is a reducing agent.
 Au+1 undergoes autooxidation to Au+3
 Uses of Au compounds: Treatment of SLE and RA
GOLD
 IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:
 Aurothioglucose (IM)
 Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis
 Gold Na thiomalate (IM)
 Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis
 Auranofin (PO)
 Treatment of gout and rheumatoid arthritis
*Au 198 – radioactive Au used in the treatment of some
malignancies
GROUP IIA ELEMENTS
Alkaline Earth Metals
Group IIA Elements
 Group IIA is also known as Alkaline earth metals.
 They are chemically active, does not occur in nature.
 Oxidation state is +2
 Are strong reducing agents (not as strong as Group IA
elements)
 Ca, Sr, Ba react with water to form hydroxides with
the evolution of H.
Group IIA Elements
 Chemical activity increases as atomic radius
increases.
 Elements are strictly metallic except for amphoteric
beryllium.
 Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2 and Ba(OH)2 are strongly basic.
 Be(OH)2 and Mg(OH)2 are insoluble in water.
 The carbonates, phosphates, sulfates and fluorides
are insoluble in water.
BERYLLIUM
 Be is amphoteric
 Be is a bridge element, resembles Al.
 Be compounds are extremely toxic.
 Never employed in medicine as a therapeutic agent
because it is the most toxic metal.
 Use: Found in fluorescent lamps
MAGNESIUM
 Magnesium is the major physiologic ion found
in chlorophyll.
 It is the second most abundant intracellular
cation in the cell.
 Lightest of all structurally important metal.
 Has a powerful anesthetic effect.
 A natural calcium channel blocker – important in
many cardiovascular diseases
MAGNESIUM
 Some Mg compounds are employed as an
antacid. [Examples: Mg(OH)2, MgCO3]
 Mg(OH)2 and MgSO4 are cathartics.
 MgSO4 is an anticonvulsant.
 Concentrated MgSO4 is used as a topical anti-
inflammatory agent.
MAGNESIUM
 Natural sources:
 As silicates: talc and asbestos
 As carbonates: magnesite and dolomite
 As sulfates: Keiserite
MAGNESIUM
 Pharmacologic action:
 Laxative
 Depressant
 Natural Ca-channel blocker
 Antidote for magnesium toxicity: Ca gluconate
(IV)
MAGNESIUM
 Important compounds:
 Magnesium carbonate [MgCO3]
 Aka: Magnesia
 Uses: Antacid and Laxative
 Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]
 Aka: Milk of magnesia, magnesia magma
 Uses: Antacid and laxative
 Magnesium oxide [MgO]
 Aka: Calcined magnesia
 Uses: Antacid, laxative and component of __________
MAGNESIUM
 Magnesium sulfate [MgSO4]
 Aka: Epsom salt
 Magnesium sulfate heptahydrate
 Uses: Cathartic (PO), anticonvulsant (IM), antidote for Ba
toxicity

 Magnesium citrate
 Aka: Lemonada purganti, purgative lemon
 Use: Laxative
MAGNESIUM
 Hydrated magnesium silicate [2MgO.4SiO2.
H2O]
 Aka: Talc, soapstone, French chalk
 Softest mineral known
 Uses:
 Dusting powder
 Filtering aid and clarifying agent
 Adsorbent
 27Mg, an artificial radioactive isotope, has been
used in research involving photosynthesis.
CALCIUM
 2nd most abundant cation in the extracellular
fluid.
 Vitamin D is needed for its maximum
absorption.
 This element is indispensable in life and is the
cation of hydroxyapatite, the major constituent
of bones and teeth.
CALCIUM
 Ca is a reactive metal whose cation is stable.
 Ca salts undergo metathesis with borates,
carbonates, citrates, oxalates, phosphates,
sulfates and tartrates to yield insoluble
compounds.
 Ca is the cation of choice to carry
therapeutically active anions (ex. Ca
aminosalicylates and Ca cyclobarbital)
CALCIUM
 Therapeutic categories represented by official
calcium compounds are as antacid, electrolyte
replenisher and calcium supplementation.

 Artificial 45Ca isotope has been employed in

studies involving mineral metabolism.
CALCIUM
 Pharmacologic action:
 Blood coagulation factor
 Important in muscular contraction
 Important in the release of neurotransmitters
 Primary element of bones and teeth (for bone
mineralization)
 Deficiency state:
 Osteoporosis
 Osteomalacia
 Rickets
 Hypocalcemia
CALCIUM
 Important compounds:
 Calcium bromide [CaBr2]
 Use: Sedative/depressant
 Calcium carbonate [CaCO3]
 Aka: Precipitated chalk, prepared chalk
 Uses: Antacid, ingredient of toothpastes and dentifrices
 Calcium chloride [CaCl2]
 Aka: Muriate of lime
 Use: Calcium replenisher
CALCIUM
 Calcium gluconate
 Use: Ca supplement and replenisher
 Treatment of choice of hypocalcemia (CaCl2 is
irritating to the veins and GIT)
 Calcium hypochlorite (CaClO)
 Aka: Chlorinated lime, chloride of lime
 Use: Disinfectant, bleaching agent
 Calcium phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2]
 Aka: Bone ash
 Use: Source of Ca and P
CALCIUM
 Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
 Aka: Slaked lime, hydrated lime, milk of lime
 Uses: Antacid, saponifying agent
 Calcium oxide [CaO]
 Aka: lime, quicklime, calx
 Uses: Component of Bordeaux mixture
(algicide/fungicide) and as insecticide.
 Calcium sulfate [CaSO4]
 Aka: Plaster of paris (as hemihydrate), gypsum (as
dihydrate)
 Uses: Rodenticide, used in preparation of surgical casts
and dental impressions.
STRONTIUM
 Seldom used therapeutically
 Used in the manufacture of flares

 Important compound:
 Strontium chloride [SrCl2]
 Used as a desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®)
BARIUM
 The most active in Group IIA
 Also known as “Heavy”
 Its cation is stable
 All barium compounds that are soluble in water
are poisonous.
 Toxicity: Baritosis
 Antidote for Ba poisoning is Epsom salt.
BARIUM
 Important compounds:
 Barium hydroxide [Ba(OH)2]
 Used as a carbon dioxide absorbent
 Barium sulfate [BaSO4]
 A radiopaque agent employed as a contrast
medium in diagnostic procedures (for GIT imaging)
RADIUM
 Discovered by Marie Curie
 A radioactive element used for cancer
chemotherapy and for diagnostic purposes
GROUP IIB ELEMENTS
Volatile Metals
Group IIB Elements
 Members of this group are zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd),
and mercury (Hg).
 They are called volatile metals because members of
this group have low boiling points.
 The common oxidation states among these metals is
+2.
Group IIB Elements
 They are less active than Group IIA elements and
tend to form covalent compounds.
 Basicity increases with an increase in ionic radius,
with mercuric oxide as the most basic and zinc oxide
being soluble in alkali (this property of dissolving in
basic solution always decreases in the groups with
increasing atomic number.
 The chlorides are hydrolyzed with decreasing ease in
the order Zn > Cd > Hg.
Group IIB Elements
 Cadmium and zinc form complex ions easily but
cadmium has a stronger tendency than Zn.
 Mercury does not readily enter into complex
formations.
 Hg can be +1 (mercurous) and +2 (mercuric)
 Solubility is quite similar to Group IIA elements.
ZINC
 Is an essential trace element
 Present in all living organism, it is thus widely
distributed in food.
 Metal present in insulin and is a component of
carbonic anhydrase.
 Zn is used in the treatment of various external
conditions in the body (antiperspirant,
astringent, protectant and antiseptic).
ZINC
 Zn compounds that are soluble in water may be
poisonous (ex. ZnO, also known as zincite).
Treatment is baking soda.
 Other uses:
 Container of batteries
 Protective coating for galvanized iron
 Deficiency: Parakeratosis (treatment: NaHCO3)
ZINC
 Important compounds:
 Zinc chloride [ZnCl2]
 Aka: Burnett’s disinfectant fluid
 Uses: disinfectant/antiseptic/precipitating germicide
and dentin desensitizer (D/A: but is corrosive)
 Zinc oxide [ZnO]
 Aka: Zinc white, Lassar’s paste
 Uses: Antiseptic, astringent and topical protectant
 Zinc-eugenol cement – dental protective
ZINC
 Zinc sulfide [ZnS]
 Aka: white sulfide
 Active ingredient in white lotion
 Uses: parasiticide, topical protectant and antiseptic
 Zinc sulfate [ZnSO4.7H2O]
 Aka: white vitriol
 Uses: Emetic, astringent and pharmaceutical
necessity in the preparation of white lotion
 Strong ZnSO4 (also known as zincosite) is an
emetic (agent used to induce vomiting).
CADMIUM
 Soluble cadmium compounds are employed as
astringents, which are agents which cause
shrinking or firming of tissues.
 Used in the manufacture of stink bombs
 Cadmium poisoning is called Itai-itai (ouch-
ouch) disease, which can be contracted from
drinking water contaminated with cadmium.
 Antidote: BAL (British Anti-Lewisite)/Dimercaprol
CADMIUM
 Important compounds:
 Cadmium sulfate [CdSO4]
 Use: Is a topical astringent and a cure for eye
infections (ophthalmic antiseptic).
 Cadmium sulfide [CdS]
 Aka: greenockite, yellow sulfide
 Use: Treats seborrheic dermatitis (dandruff)
 Cadmium chloride [CdCl2]
 Use: emetic, treatment of Tinea infections
MERCURY
 Aka: Hydrargyrum, Messenger of the gods,
Quicksilver
 It is a true metal and the only metal that is liquid
at room temperature.
 Mercury and its compounds are extremely toxic
(Hg spills are treated with S)
MERCURY
 Antidotes for mercury poisoning are sodium
formaldehyde sulfoxylate, NF and egg albumin.
 The white of one egg (egg albumin) should be
given for every 250 mg of mercuric chloride
ingested. Emesis should be induced thereafter.
 Poisoning: Minamata disease
 Antidote for poisoning: EDTA
MERCURY
 Pharmacologic action:
 Diuretic
 Antiseptic
 Treatment of syphilis
 Cathartic
 Parasiticidal/Fungicide
 Industrial use:
 Thermometer, amalgams (dental cement)
MERCURY
 Important compounds:
 Mercurous chloride [Hg2Cl2]
 Aka: Calomel
 Use: Cathartic and local antiseptic
 Mercuric chloride [HgCl2]
 Aka: Corrosive sublimate
 Use: Disinfectant
 Mercurous iodide [HgI]
 Use: treatment of syphilis
 Mercuric iodide [HgI2]
 Use: treatment of indolent ulcers
MERCURY
 Potassium mercuric iodide [K2HgI4]
 Use: Antiseptic and component of Mayer’s reagent
 Mercuric oxide [HgO]
 Aka: yellow precipitate
 Use: Ophthalmic antiseptic
 Ammoniated mercury [Cl2H6HgN2]
 Use: treats impetigo, psoriasis and other minor skin
conditions.
GROUP IIIA ELEMENTS
Boron Family
Group IIIA Elements
 +3 oxidation state appears in all of the elements in the
family.
 With increasing atomic number, the +3 oxidation state
becomes more electrovalent in character.
 They readily oxidize when heated in air but are stable
at ordinary temperatures.
Group IIIA Elements
 The oxides are readily reduced back to the free metal
and the metals react readily with sulfur and the
halogens.
 The hydroxides tend to show amphoteric properties
with the exceptions of the top and bottom elements of
the group.
 Members of this family give rise to double salts, the
alum.
BORON
 Boron is a metalloid
 Boron is toxic by ingestion and by absorption
through the skin.
 Boron is a bridge element resembling Silicon.
 Boric acid and the borates are feebly
bacteriostatic.
 Oxyacids of boron: (1) boric acid [H3BO3] and (2)
metaboric acid [HBO2]
BORON
 Boric acids is used as a topical anti-infective
and solution for eyewash.
 Sodium borate is a bacteriostatic. It is an
ingredient in eye washes and mouthwashes.
 Borate buffers are used in collyria
 Borate buffers are easily precipitated by
common metals.
BORON
 Important compounds:
 Boric acid [H3BO3]
 Aka: sal sativum, sal sedativum
 Toxicity: Lobster appearance
 Uses:
 Buffer (ophthalmic solutions – 2%) – weak acid
 Antiseptic (topical anti-infective)
 Tonicity adjusting agent – along with NaCl
 Eyewash (2.5 – 4.5%)
BORON
 Na2B4O7 . 10H2O
 Aka: Borax, Na tetraborate, Dobell’s solution
 Use:
 Antiseptic
 Eyewash
 Wet dressing for wounds
 A frequent ingredient of cold creams, eyewashes
and mouthwashes
ALUMINUM
 The most abundant of the metals
 The 3rd most abundant element in the Earth’s
crust.
 Insoluble aluminum compounds [e.g. Al(OH)3]
are used as gastric antacids.
 Soluble aluminum salts, due to their astringent
property, are antiperspirant, and used in
deodorants.
ALUMINUM
 Pharmacologic uses:
 Astringent
 Thin aluminum foils for burn patients
 Elemental Al, in paste form, is topically a
protective agent.
 Protectives – merely provide a physical barrier
against abrasions and harsh substances that
may come in contact with the treated area.
ALUMINUM
 Important compounds:
 Aluminum chloride [AlCl3 . 6H2O]
 Uses: Astringent, antiseptic and
antiperspirant/deodorant
 Alum (Tawas)
 General formula: M+3 (M+1) (SO4)2 . 12H2O
 AlNH4(SO4)2 . 12H2O – NH4 salt
 AlK(SO4)2 . 12H2O – K salt
 Use: Astringent and antiperspirant/deodorant
ALUMINUM
 Aluminum hydroxide [Al(OH)3]
 Aka: Amphojel, Cremalin gel
 Use: Antacid, Protectant
 Disadvantage: (1) Constipation, (2) Phosphate
deficiency
 Aluminum phosphate [AlPO4]
 Aka: Phosphagel
 Use: Antacid, astringent, demulcent
 Advantage: Does not interfere with phosphate
absorption
ALUMINUM
 Aluminum carbonate [Al2(CO3)3]
 Use: treatment of phosphatic calculi
 Aluminum oxide [Al2O3]
 Aka: Alumina
 Use: treatment of silicosis
ALUMINUM
 Aluminum silicates:
A. Kaolin [Al2Si2O5(OH)4]
 Aka: China clay, native hydrated aluminum silicate
 Use: adsorbent in diarrhea and demulcent providing
some soothing relief on abraded mucous membranes.
B. Bentonite [BaTiSi3O9]
 Aka: soap clay, mineral soap, native colloidal hydrated
aluminum silicate
 Use: Suspending agent in pharmaceutical preparations
ALUMINUM
C. Pumice
 Of volcanic origin
 Use: dental abrasive
GALLIUM, INDIUM AND THALLIUM
 They have no pharmaceutical use except as
radioactive isotopes used as diagnostic aids.

 Thallium is among the most toxic and is

absorbed in the intestine and through the skin
from ointments and creams. Toxicity is similar
to Arsenic (As).
GALLIUM, INDIUM AND THALLIUM
 Tl (I) is similar to K, Tl (III) is similar to Al (III)
and Au (III).
 In is similar to Al and Ga.
GROUP IIIB ELEMENTS
Lanthanides and Actinides Group
Group IIIB Elements
 Members: Scandium (Sc), Yttrium (Y), Lanthanum
(La), Actinium (Ac) and the lanthanide or actinide
series.
 The elements in this group have oxidation numbers of
+3 or +2, having physical properties that are typical of
metals.
 Sc, Y and La exhibit +3 oxidation state.
Group IIIB Elements
 Group IIIB elements increases its metallic character
with increasing atomic number.
 Basicity of rare earth metals decreases with
increasing atomic number.

 All of the Lanthanide elements occur in mixtures, which are

hard to separate due to their similarity in chemical properties
whereas all the actinide elements beyond uranium prepared
synthetically may only exist as radioactive isotopes, which are
usually not very stable.
GROUP IVA ELEMENTS
Carbon Family
Group IVA Elements
 The elements in this group may exhibit +2 and +4
oxidation states.
 They are usually non-metallic in character (C & Si).
Both elements are capable of catenation.
 Metallic properties appear with Si and Ge and
become predominant in Sn and Pb.
Group IVA Elements
 The oxides of carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are acidic.
 Whereas, those of the other members (Ge, Sn, and
Pb) of the group are amphoteric.

 Silicon may form complex insoluble aluminosilicates.

CARBON
 It is widely distributed in nature.
 The free state of C appears in various forms like coke,
lampblack or charcoal.
 It exists in two allotropic forms:
 Amorphous (e.g. coal, charcoal and anthracite)
 Crystalline (e.g. diamond and graphite)
CARBON
 Important compounds:
 Activated charcoal
 Used to treat emergency poisoning prior to emesis
 In its finely powdered form is used as an adsorbent
in the treatment of diarrhea
 Component of ____________________
CARBON
 Carbon monoxide [CO]
 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin than oxygen leading to
asphyxia then death
 Treatment: (1) 100% O2, (2) Artificial air (80% He & 20%
oxygen) and (3) hyperbaric oxygen
 Carbon dioxide [CO2]
 Aka: carbonic acid gas
 Use: potent and effective respiratory stimulant, used in the
treatment of CO poisoning
 Dry ice (Solid CO2) – a refrigerant; used in the treatment of
acne, angiomas, corn and calluses
 Container: Gray metallic cylinder
CARBON
 CO2 – used as a respiratory stimulant. It is a by-
product of fermentation.
 Carbonates and bicarbonates are used as gastric
antacids.
 KHCO3 – used as a source of electrolytes
 Bismuth subcarbonate – astringent and
protective
 (NH4)2CO3 – reflex stimulant and expectorant
SILICON
 Is the second most abundant element in earth.
 It does not occur free in nature but as silicon
dioxide (SiO2) or silica, which is inert.
 SiO2 occurs in nature in both crystalline and
amorphous form (ex. quartz, sand, opal or
siliceous earths).
SILICON
 Siliceous earths, also known as diatomaceous
earth, infusorial earth, Fuller’s earth, Kieselguhr
or Celite, is an excellent inert, non-absorbent
filter aid – used as non-absorbent filtering aid
and mild abrasive.

 Amorphous silica – used as gas absorbents,

dessicants, carriers, fillers and abrasives.
SILICON
 Silicosis (Si toxicity) – a lung condition
resembling chronic tuberculosis, developing
after long exposure (7 years or more) to
“respirable dust” of silicon (silica particles 5
micrometer or less).
 Treatment: Aluminum oxide (Alumina - Al2O3)

 Breathing aluminum dust or aluminum oxide dust

are regular intervals prevents development of
silicosis.
SILICON
 Silicon form silicic acids, e.g.:
 Metasilicic acid (H2SiO3)
 Orthosilicic acid (H4SiO4)
 Disilicic acid (H6Si2O7)
SILICON
 Silicates – a compound of Si and an anion
 Silicates are insoluble in water or acids except
for alkali salts.
 Silicates can be attacked by HF to form the
gaseous SiF4.
SILICON
 Important compounds:
 Silicon dioxide [SiO2]
 Aka: Purified siliceous earth or silica
 Use: Absorbent
 Talc [2MgO . 4SiO2 . H2O]
 Aka: Hydrated magnesium silicate, French chalk
 It is the softest mineral known
 Uses: dusting powder as a protective and lubricant and
as a filtering aid (due to its inertness)
 Talc must not be used in broken skin, wounds and
surgical incisions – impairs wound healing.
SILICON
 Bentonite
 Aka: soap clay, mineral soap, native colloidal
hydrated aluminum silicate
 Use: Suspending agent, emulsifier for oil, a base for
plasters and ointments
 Kaolin
 Aka: china clay, native hydrated aluminum silicate
 Uses: Clarifying agent, intestinal absorbent and
protective, dusting powders
SILICON
 Attapulgite [Mg5Si8O20(OH)2 . 8H2O]
 Aka: Polymagma, Quintess
 Use: Absorbent for diarrhea (as adsorptive in anti-
diarrheal products)
 Simethicone
 Polymeric dimethyl siloxane
 Use: Anti-flatulent in gastric bloating and in
postoperative gaseous distention in the GI tract.
 Pumice
 Porous rock of volcanic origin
 Use: dental abrasive
SILICON
 Glass
 Made from a vitreous silicate material prepared by
fusing a base (e.g. Na2CO3 and CaCO3) with pure
silica then by cooling, to produce a vitreous mass.

 Glasses has the tendency to affect the integrity of

the product.
 Solutions may become alkali upon long exposure to
glass.
SILICON
 Glass Additives:
1. MnO2 – hides the blue-green color of ion present in
silica.
2. Borates – reduces coefficient of expansion. It also
makes the glass alkali and heat resistant.
3. K – gives a brown and a light resistant glass
4. Pb (Lead) – increases the refractive index of the
glass.
GERMANIUM
 Also known as eka-silicon
 It is a metalloid
 It has no application in health sciences.
 Used in the manufacture of electric conductors.
 Two series of Ge compounds:
 Ge2+ (Germanous) – ex. GeO
 Ge4+ (Germanic) – ex. GeO2
 Germanous compounds are unstable; while
Germanic compounds have greater stability.
TIN
 Aka: Stannum
 When bent, Sn has a peculiar sound known as
the “Cry of Tin”.
 Tin unites directly with most non-metals (ex.
SnO2)
 Used in the preparation of tin cans
TIN
 Alloys of Tin:
 Pewter (80% Sn, 20% Pb)
 Type metal (25% Sn, 50% Pb, 25% Sb)
 Gun metal (10% Sn, 90% Cu)
 Rose metal (25% Sn, 25% Pb, 50% Bi)
 Bronze (20% Sn, 80% Cu)
TIN
 Important compounds:
 Stannous fluoride [SnF2]
 Aka: Fluoristan
 Only Sn compound used pharmaceutically.
 Used as a dental prophylactic
 Anticariogenic at 8% concentration
 Stannic oxide [SnO2]
 Aka: Cassiterite
 Have germicidal effect particularly against
Staphylococcus infections.
LEAD
 Aka: Plumbum, Plumbum nigrum
 The most metallic element of the group (Group
IVA).
 Metallic Pb tarnishes rapidly in moist air forming
PbO.
 Pb unites directly with F, Cl, and S.
 ____ is the best solvent of Pb.
LEAD
 It is no longer used in pharmacy because it is
toxic.
 It is highly toxic in nature as a cumulative
poison, is readily absorbed in the intestinal tract
and broken skin, and deposited in the bone.
 Poisoning: Plumbism
 Antidote: EDTA, Ca versenate
 Uses: Astringent, protein precipitant
LEAD
 Common source of Pb poisoning:
 Lead pipes
 Batteries
 Paints
 Pb is the only Group IVA element that forms
stable compounds with oxyacids.
LEAD
 Important compounds:
 Plumbous acetate [Pb(CH3COO)2]
 Aka: Sugar of lead
 Use: Astringent
 Plumbic acetate [Pb2(CH3COO)2]
 Aka: Goulard’s extract
 Use: Astringent, antiseptic
 Plumbous oxide [PbO]
 Litharge – natural mineral form of PbO
GROUP IVB ELEMENTS
Titanium Family
Group IVB Elements
 These are transition elements.
 Hafnium is so similar to zirconium in all respects that
whatever applies to one also applies to the other.
 Trivalent titanium is the most important in this group.
TITANIUM
 Aka: Titan, Sons of earth
 Use: A powerful reducing agent
 Titanium forms three oxides: titanium oxide
(TiO), titanium trioxide (Ti2O3), titanium dioxide
(TiO2), also known as rutile.
TITANIUM
 Important compounds:
 Titanium dioxide [TiO2]
 Has a high refractive index
 Uses:
 Opacifying agent in pharmaceutics
 Used in the production of white capsules
 UV ray protectant – it reflects UV rays to prevent
sunburn
ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM
 Unpurified Zirconium ores contain hafnium.
 Its hydroxide and carbonate are used in lotions
or creams for contact dermatitis, antiperspirant
and deodorant preparations.

 Use of Zirconium (Zr) – same as Al but banned

due to granuloma formation.
ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM
 Former official compounds:
 Zirconium oxide
 Zirconium carbonate
 Both are used as antiperspirant and treatment
of athlete’s foot.
GROUP VA ELEMENTS
Nitrogen Family
Group VA Elements
Members of Group VA displays regular
gradation from the non-metallic nitrogen to
metallic bismuth.
Oxidation state of +3 and +5 are common to all
members
The oxides of N and P are acidic
The oxides of As and Sb are amphoteric
The common oxide of Bismuth (Bi2O3) is basic
NITROGEN
 Aka: Mephitic air, azote (“without life”)
 Most abundant gas in air (nitrogen occurs in the
atmosphere [78%]) and is combined in nitrates
and organic compounds.
 It is a colorless, tasteless, odorless inert gas
 It is non-flammable
 It is produced by fractional distillation of liquid air
NITROGEN
Therapeutically inactive
Elemental nitrogen is employed
pharmaceutically as an inert atmosphere in
ampules and in other containers of
substances that would be adversely
affected by air.
Liquid nitrogen is used as a refrigerant
Container: Black
NITROGEN
 Important compounds:
 N2O (nitrous oxide)
 Aka: Laughing gas
 Used as a general inhalatory anesthetic
 Container: blue
 S/E: Diffusional hypoxia and megaloblastic anemia
 NO2 (nitrites)
 Use: Vasodilator, and treatment for cyanide poisoning
 NO3 (nitrates)
 Use: As a meat preservative (but carcinogenic)
NITROGEN
Sodium nitrite (NaNO2)
 Use: Antidote for cyanide poisoning and as a
vasodilator
Nitric acid (HNO3)
 Aka: Aqua Fortis
 It produces a yellow stain on animal tissues
(Xanthoproteic test)
 Use: Acidifying agent and used externally to
destroy chancres and warts
PHOSPHORUS
Aka: Light carrier and St. Elmo’s fire
Phosphorus has two allotropic forms, white
and red.
 White phosphorus: poisonous and flammable
(distinctive, disagreeable, ozone-like odor)
 Red phosphorus: non-poisonous and non-
flammable (brown to red amorphous powder)
The antidote for white phosphorus poisoning is
cupric sulfate (CuSO4).
PHOSPHORUS
P is essential to plant and animal life.
P forms complex with Ca (hydroxyapatite –
a complex of basic calcium phosphate)
that is used in teeth and bone formation.
Phosphates are used as buffer systems in
the body.
PHOSPHORUS
Allotropic modifications of Phosphorus:
Scarlet phosphorus – produced by heating
PBr3 with Hg at 240 degrees Celsius.
Violet phosphorus – heating white P with
Na to 200 degrees Celsius
Metallic or black phosphorus – heating P
with Pb at 530 degrees Celsius.
PHOSPHORUS
 Important compounds:
 Tribasic phosphates [Ca3(PO4)2, Mg3(PO4)2, AlPO4]
are used as gastric antacids.
 Monobasic alkali phosphate [NaH2PO4] is used as a
urinary acidifier and dibasic sodium phosphates
[Na2HPO4] is used in saline cathartics and in
enemas.
 Phosphates – are used as buffers, cathartics and
antacids
 Principle anion in the intracellular fluid.
PHOSPHORUS
 Phosphoric acid – used to form soluble salts of
insoluble medicinal bases.
 Hypophosphorous acid, NF – used as an
antioxidant primarily with iodide and ferrous
salts.
ARSENIC
 Aka: Lewisite metal
 It is a component of Salvarsan
 Arsenic compounds are very poisonous, so
they are not employed medicinally.
 In case of ingestion, if As is still in the GI tract,
a freshly prepared mixture of iron (III) and
magnesium hydroxide is the antidote. If it is
already absorbed, dimercaprol is injected by
IM.
ARSENIC
 Former compounds of As that are used
medicinally:
 Potassium arsenite (Fowler’s solution)
 Arsenic trioxide [As2O3]
 Aka: Arsenolite
 In doses of 1mg/mL, has been used to treat acute
promyelocytic leukemia.
 Used as an insecticide
 Side effects: Electrocardiographic abnormalities
ARSENIC
 Salvarsan/Arsphenamine/Compound 606 and
Neosalvarsan 914 are early arsenic
compounds in the treatment of syphilis, a
sexually-transmitted infection.
ANTIMONY
 Aka: Stibium
 Potentially toxic
 Pharmacologic use:
 Expectorant
 Emetic
 Anti-helminthic
 Alloys of antimony:
 Babbitt metal (80% Sn, 20% Sb)
 Anti-friction metal (75% Sn, 12.5% Sb, 12.5% Cu)
ANTIMONY
 Important compound:
 Antimony potassium tartrate [C8H4K2O12Sb2]
 Aka: tartar emetic, brown mixture
 Formerly used as an emetic and
expectorant
 Used in the treatment of schistosomiasis
(liver fluke), a type of helminthic infestation
that is endemic in eastern Philippines.
BISMUTH
 Aka: Beautiful meadow
 Pharmacologic uses:
 Astringent
 Antiseptic
 Internal protective for ulcer
 Side effects: Dark stools and blue-black gums
 Antidote: BAL/ Dimercaprol
BISMUTH
 Soluble compounds of bismuth are toxic.
Dimercaprol, given intramuscularly, is the
effective antidote.
 Bismuth compounds causes black stools
because of Bismuth (III) sulfide.
 Bismuth compounds are used to remove
warts.
 Bismuth is formerly an adjunct to As to treat
amoebiasis in a form of Glycobiarsol.
BISMUTH
 Important compounds:
 Bismuth subgallate, subcarbonate and
subnitrate – used as an astringent, mild
germicide, antacid and protective (due to its
adherent properties).
 Colloidal bismuth subcitrate is prescribed
clinically in the treatment of peptic ulcer.
BISMUTH
 Milk of Bismuth
 Aka: Bismuth cream
 A mixture of Bi subnitrate and Bi hydroxide
 Primary use:
 Antacid
 Internal protective especially for gastric-
ulcer patients
 Inhibits the growth of H. pylori
GROUP VB ELEMENTS
Tantalum Family/Vanadium subgroup
Group VB Elements
Members of this group are Vanadium (V),
Niobium (Nb) and Tantalum (Ta).
The acidity of the oxides decreases with
progressing atomic number, while the basicity of
the hydroxides decreases with increasing
oxidation state.
Niobium – is also known as Columbium
Tantalum
Tantalum is unaffected by body fluids,
therefore inert in our body.
It is used in sheet form for use in
surgical repair of bones (muscle
tissues will attach to tantalum as though
it was a bone), nerve and tissues.
GROUP VIA ELEMENTS
Oxygen Family
Group VIA Elements
Group VIA is also known as chalcogens
Oxygen is non-metallic in character, whereas
polonium is metallic, and is naturally radioactive
Sulfur occurs as a free element in the earth’s
crust and in combined form as metal sulfides
and sulfates.
Oxygen
Aka: empyreal air, dephlogisticated air,
“yne”
Most abundant element
Use: treatment of hypoxia/asphyxia and for
the relief of cyanosis
It can cause edema if used uninterrupted
for 1 to 2 days without adjusting the dose.
Container: Green
Oxygen
It is very reactive, combining directly with all
elements except Hg, Ag, Au, and members
of the platinum family.
In free form, it constitutes about 1/5 of air by
weight.
Oxygen, USP – therapeutic gas for the
treatment of hypoxia
Ozone (O3) – allotropic form of oxygen, is a
powerful oxidizing agent
Oxygen
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is commonly
used at 3% and 6% concentrations.
The strength of H2O2 depends on the
volume of active oxygen (nascent oxygen) it
yields.
3% H2O2 – is a mild, fast-acting, oxidizing
germicide which destroys pathogenic
bacteria
6% H2O2 – common bleaching agent (hair)
Sulfur
 Aka: Shubari, brimstone, enemy of copper
 Uses:
 In the preparation of scabicidal and keratolytic
ointments
 Stimulant cathartic
 Depilatory agent
 Fumigant
 Anti-dandruff
 Rhombic sulfur – stable form of sulfur at room
temperature
 Prepared through Frasch process
Sulfur
Elemental sulfur has a fungicidal action
2 forms of sulfur:
 Precipitated sulfur (milk of sulfur)
 Used in the preparation of keratolytic
ointments/lotions
 Used as a scabicide
 Sublimed sulfur (flower of sulfur)
 Used as a cathartic
Sulfur
Important compounds:
Sulfur ointments and lotions – for
dermatological applications as keratolytics
(an agent that dissolves or breaks the
outer layer of skin).
White lotion, USP – used as an astringent
and protective. Prepared by adding
sulfurated potash solution to zinc sulfate
solution.
Sulfur
Cadmium sulfide and selenium sulfide -
used for the topical treatment of seborrheic
dermatitis (dandruff)
Sulfur dioxide, USP – used as antioxidants
and preservatives
Sulfur metabisulfite, NF – used as an
antioxidant
Selenium
Aka: Selena, moon
An essential trace element
In large doses, selenium is toxic
Promotes the absorption of Vitamin E
Used as an anti-oxidant
Slowly absorbed through the skin
Selenium
Important compounds:
Selemethionine (75Se) injection, USP aids in
diagnosing pancreatic tumors and growths
Selenium sulfide, USP – at 2.5% suspension
treats seborrheic dermatitis. Note: Must not
come in contact with the eyes and mouth as it
damages the sensitive membranes.
Selenium
Prolonged contact with the skin results in
contact dermatitis (skin changes resembling
eczema).
GROUP VIB ELEMENTS
Chromium subgroup
Group VIB Elements
These are all distinctly metallic and forms
oxides that are acidic (for those of high
molecular weight)
Molybdenum and tungsten are definitely acidic
whereas uranium is both acid- and base-
forming.
Chromium
An essential trace element
Used as a glucose tolerance factor
 51Cr – employed as a biological tracer in
haematological procedures
Deficiency: hyperglycemia
Important compound: Potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7) – used as a powerful oxidizing agent
Molybdenum
An essential trace element
Important compounds:
 Ammonium molybdate
 Molybdenum oxide
 + FeSO4 – used as a hematinic
Uranium
Discovered by Becquerel
Radioactive element used for the
manufacture of atomic bombs
No pharmaceutical use
GROUP VIIA ELEMENTS
Halogen Family
Group VIIA Elements
Halogen means “salt” or “sea salt producer”.
Due to the reactivity, halogens are never found
free in nature.
Fluorine is the most electronegative element
 Fluorine – strongest oxidizing agent; weakest
reducing agent
 Iodine – weakest oxidizing agent; strongest
reducing agent
Group VIIA Elements
All halogens unite with hydrogen to form
covalent gaseous hydrogen halides.
Halogens:
 Fluorine (F) – is a pale yellow gas
 Chlorine (Cl) – is a greenish yellow gas
 Bromine (Br) – a reddish brown liquid
 Iodine (I) – a black solid
Fluorine
Is the strongest oxidizing agent
Most reactive among the electronegative elements.
Attacks all metals at room temperature except Au
and Pt
Essential element present in bones and teeth
Poisoning: Fluorosis
Manifestation: (a) Mottled enamel; (b) Abnormal
bone growth
Mottled Enamel
Fluorine
Fluoride, in large doses, treats
osteoporosis
Important compounds:
Sodium fluoride (2%) and Stannous
fluoride (8%) – used as dental
prophylactic and anticariogenic
CCl2F2 (Freon) – used as a refrigerant
and aerosol propellant
Chlorine
Aka: dephlogisticated muriatic acid
Most abundant extracellular anion
Used as a water disinfectant
Is a very reactive non-metallic element
The chlorides of sodium, potassium and
calcium are electrolyte replenishers.
Chlorine
Important compounds:
Hydrochloric acid, NF (HCl) – is a
pharmaceutical necessity for neutralizing and
stabilizing water
Ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) – an expectorant
and a systemic acidifying agent
Sodium hypochlorite solution (NaOCl) or
Dakin’s solution – is an effective germicide,
viricide and deodorant due to -HOCl.
Chlorine
Sodium hypochlorite topical solution -
contains 0.025% NaOCl (pH = 8). It has
antimicrobial and antiviral properties
which make it ideal to treat burn wounds.
Calcium hypochlorite (CaOCl2) – is a
good and cheap bleaching powder found
in some laundry detergents.
Bromine
Described as a dark reddish brown
fuming liquid with a suffocating odor.
Fumes are highly irritating to mucous
membranes.
A powerful caustic and germicide
If skin comes in contact with bromine,
wash immediately with a solution of
NaHCO3 and treated with glycerin.
Bromine
Bromine containers should be opened only
after having been thoroughly cooled.
Pharmacologic action: Sedative/depressant
Excessive continued dosage of bromine
results in bromism.
Principal manifestation: (1) skin eruption, (2)
psychosis, (3) weakness, and (4) headache
Antidote: NaCl and NH4Cl
Iodine
 Is the most metallic of all halogens (except for
Astatine)
 Weakest oxidizing agent; strongest reducing agent
 Elemental iodine is toxic (in case of toxicity, corn
starch and sodium thiosulfate can be given)
 Pharmacologic action:
 Expectorant
 Antifungal
 Deficiency: Goiter
Iodine
Iodine preparations:
NaI and KI – enhances the solubility of iodine.
Povidone-iodine (Betadine®) – has a synthetic
polymer, PVP – that reduced the volatility of iodine
and decreases skin irritation.
Betadine® is also applied as an antiseptic on
wounds, in gargles, and mouthwashes for
infections of the oral cavity.
Iodide – essential for thyroid functioning, also, ion
exerts expectorant action
Iodine
Elemental Iodine preparations:
Strong Iodine Solution (aka: Lugol’s solution)
Iodine tincture – antiseptic and disinfectant
Astatine
Resembles iodine, but is more metallic
Has no pharmaceutical applications
 Only metallic halogen
 Only synthetic halogen
 Only radioactive halogen
GROUP VIIB ELEMENTS
The Manganese subgroup
Group VIIB Elements
The only metal of pharmaceutical importance in
this group is manganese.
Metallic in character
Manganese
It is an essential trace element responsible
for the activation of enzymes.
Co-factor in:
 Protein synthesis
 Phosphorylation
 Fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis
Poisoning: Signs and symptoms are
Parkinson-like.
Manganese
Official compounds:
Manganese chloride (MnCl2) – also known
as scacchite
Manganese gluconate
Manganese sulfate (MnSO4)
Manganese
Potassium permanganate (KMnO4)
 Aka: Mineral chameleon
 Used as a local anti-infective, astringent,
deodorant and cleanser
 Used in dilute concentrations of 0.01% – 1%
 Dilute permanganate solutions delivered by
gastric lavage is an antidote to various
alkaloids and toxic substances (susceptible to
oxidation) that have been ingested.
Technetium
From the Greek word, “technetos” meaning
artificial.
The 1st element produced artificially.
 99Tc is distributed as a diagnostic
radiopharmaceutical
Rhenium
A very rare element
Employed as a catalyst for
dehydrogenation (a chemical reaction
involving the removal of H from a
molecule).
 GROUP VIIIB ELEMENTS
The Ferrous Metals and The Platinum Metals (Triads)
Group VIIIB Elements
These elements are metallic and all participate
in the formation of coordination complexes.
All form colored compounds.
The difference between the iron triad and the
platinum metals is the ability of the former group
to form a simple cation. In contrast, platinum
metals seem to prefer higher oxidation states.
Group VIIIB Elements
First triad – Fe, Co, Ni (Ferrous metals)
Second triad – Ru, Rh, Pd (Ruthenium,
Rhodium, Palladium)
Third triad – Os, Ir, Pt (Osmium, Iridium,
Platinum)
2nd and 3rd triads – platinum metals (exhibits
extreme inertness to chemical reactions)
Iron
Aka: Ferrum
Distributed widely in nature
It is an essential trace element. Ferrous ion is a
hematinic agent, which increases the
hemoglobin content of the blood.
When ferric ion is taken  reduced to ferrous
ion
Iron is an important element in the
transportation of oxygen by hemoglobin
Iron
Hemoglobin and myoglobin – oxygen
carriers)
Transferrin – transport form of Fe
Ferritin – storage form of Fe

Iron readily forms soluble complexes with

ligands, such as phosphate, citrate, tartrate
and amines.
Iron
Iron (II) Ferrous:
 Green in hydrated state; white in anhydrous
state
 Salts undergo slight hydrolysis & oxidized in
solution
Iron (III) Ferric:
 Yellow to brown in hydrated state
 Varies in color in anhydrous state
 Compounds have an astringent property
Iron
Sources:
 Hematite/Red oxide - Fe2O3
 Iron stone – FeCO3
 Iron pyrite (Fool’s gold) - FeS2
Fe enhances the absorption of: (a) Copper
[Cu], (b) Vitamin C
Use: Hematinic
Toxicity: GIT distress and cardiac collapse
Antidote: Deferoxamine
Iron
 Important compounds:
 Ferrous sulfate (FeSO4)
 Aka: Green vitriol
 Use: Hematinic (Side effect: Constipation)
 Ferrous gluconate (Fergon®)
 Less irritating in the GI tract
 Ferrous fumarate (Toleron®)
 More stable than FeSO4 in oxidation
 Ferrous carbonate (FeCO3)
 Aka: Chalybeate pills, ferruginous pills
 Use: Hematinic
Iron
Iron dextran injection – composed of
colloidal ferric hydroxide with partially
hydrolyzed dextran and iron sorbitex
injection – used for patients with poor GI
tolerance or poor absorption of iron.
Basham’s mixture
 Components: Iron + Ammonium acetate
 Uses: (1) Astringent and (2) Styptic
Iron
Ferric ferrocyanide (Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3)
Aka: Prussian blue or Berlin blue
Ferrous ferricyanide (Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2)
Aka: Turnbull’s blue

Note: A study revealed that men with higher

ferritin levels (an iron protein storage) were
found to be more prone to heart attack.
Cobalt
May catalyze the physiological utilization of
iron.
Iron + Cobalt medicinal preparations are
designed to treat iron-deficiency anemia.
Essential in the development of
erythrocytes and hemoglobin
Component of Vitamin B12
Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia
Cobalt
Important compounds:
Cobaltous chloride (CoCl2)
 Aka: Lover’s ink, sympathetic ink
 Use: Indicator of the degree of water-
saturation of a dessicant.
 Anhydrous: Blue; Hydrous: Violet to pink
Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12)
Nickel
Aka: Old nick’s copper
Poisoning: “Nickel itch” (a form of contact
dermatitis/irritation caused by fancy
jewelry)

NiCO3 and NiSO4 – used as a parasiticide

Osmium
Heaviest/densest metal
Important compounds:
 Osmic acid
 Osmic tetroxide
 Both are used in staining microorganism for
microcospic study in electron microscopes.
Platinum metals
Palladium
 Used as a catalyst in organic reaction and
in hydrogenation
Platinum
 Used as a catalyst in hydrogenation
Platinum metals
Organic drugs with Platinum:
 Cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloroplatinum) –
treatment of prostate cancer
 Carboplatin [cis-diammine (1,1-
cyclobutanedicarboxylato) platinum(II)] –
treatment of cancer, less toxic than
cisplatin
 Transplatin – not an effective treatment of
prostate cancer
THE END