Biomolecules

Monomers & Polymers

• Macromolecules are
actually made up of even
smaller subunits. Each
subunit of a
macromolecule is called a
monomer.
• The macromolecules
themselves are called
polymers, because they
are made up of many of
these subunits.
 I. CARBOHYDRATES
• are an important source of energy.
• Has a monomer monosaccharide
• provide structural support for cells and help
with communication between cells.
• Made up of CHO
Classification of Carbohydrates
• Polysaccharide
 LIPIDS
• Include a diverse group of compounds
that are nonpolar in nature.
• Fatty compounds made of C H O, don’t
interact with water (hydrophobic)
– Cell membranes are composed two lipid
layers, which keep water from crossing
• Functions of lipids have
include
• insulation of heat,
• storing energy
• protection
• dissolves fat-soluble vitamins
• cellular communication.
 CLASSIFICATIONS

• FATS AND OILS

• WAXES
• PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• STEROIDS
 Fats and Oils
• Fat- consists of glycerol and fatty acids
• Glycerol- an organic compound (alcohol) with three carbons,
five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups.
• Fatty acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a
carboxyl group is attached, hence the name fatty acid.

• Fats are also called triacylglycerols or triglycerides

• Examples are:
- Palmitic acid- a saturated fatty acid derived from the palm
tree
- Arachidic acid- derived from Arachis hypogea
 Classification of Fatty Acids
1. Saturated Fatty Acids- there are only single bonds between
neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain
- saturated with hydrogen
- example is stearic acid
- mammals store fats in specialized cells called adipocytes
- plants store fat and oil in their seeds and used as source of
energy during seedling development
 Classification of Fatty Acids
2. Unsaturated Fatty Acid- the hydrocarbon chain
contains double bond
- Usually of plant origin
• Example: Oleic acid
• Liquid at room temperature and are called oils
a. Monounsaturated fat- there is one double bond
in the molecule (e.g. olive oil)
b. Polyunsaturated fat- there is more than one
double bond (e.g. canola oil)
• Trans Fats
• In the food industry, oils are artificially hydrogenated to
make them semi-solid and of a consistency desirable
for many processed food products.
• Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and
shortening contains artificially hydrogenated trans fats.
• Recent studies have shown that an increase of trans
fats may lead to an increase in levels of low-density
lipoproteins (LDL) or bad cholesterol.
• Could cause atherosclerosis
• Omega Fatty Acids
• Essential fatty acids that could not be synthesized by the
human body
• There are only 2: Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids
• Omega-3 fatty acids- are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are
called omega-3 because the 3rd carbon from the end of the
hydrocarbon chain is connected to its neighboring carbon by a
double bond.
• Reduce the risk of sudden death from heart attacks and may
help reduce the risk of some cancers in animals
Examples of omega-3 fatty acids
• Alpha-linoleic acid (ALA)
• Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA)
• Docosahexanoic acid (DHA)
 WAXES
• Made up of long fatty acid chains esterified to
long chain alcohols.
• Examples: feathers of aquatic
birds and leaf surfaces of some
plants
 PHOSPHOLIPIDS
• phospholipid is the
primary molecule found
in the membranes of
cells.
• Lipids in water will
arrange themselves to
hide their hydrophobic
tails
HYDROPHILIC HYDROPHOBIC
• Amphipathic
• Phosphatidylcholine and
phosphatidylserine-
phospholipids in our
plasma membrane
 STEROIDS
• Have fused ring structure
• All have four-linked carbon rings and several of them
like cholesterol have a short tail
• Cholesterol- most common steroid
- mainly synthesized in the liver and is the precursor
to many steroid hormones such as testosterone and
estradiol, which are secreted by the gonads and
endocrine glands.
- also a precursor to Vitamin D and bile salts, which
help in the emulsification of fats and their
subsequent absorption by cells.
- component of the plasma membrane
 Anabolic steroids and related
substances pose health risks
• Anabolic steroids are usually synthetic variants
of testosterone
• Use of these substances
can cause serious health
problems

Figure 3.10
Classification of Lipids
OTHER LIPIDS
 III. PROTEINS

• Structural building blocks of cells in all tissues (not just

muscle!)
• Polymers composed of 300 – 100k+ monomers
• Monomers are called amino acid
• There are 20 amino acids, many of which must come
from your diet
• 50% dry weight of body
• Mammal cell contains 10,000 proteins
• Made up of CHONPS
• Proteins are found in meat, fish, legumes, nuts, milk,
eggs, grains and soy products.
Protein Structure

• Primary structure – the order of

amino acids making up the
polymer string
• Secondary structure – helixes
and sheets of the polymer
string folding on itself
• Tertiary structure – globs
of sheets and helixes
folding around each other
• Quaternary
Structure –
individual
proteins bound
to each other to
form a multi-
protein unit with
is own unique
function
Protein classification
 Protein classification based on
chemical composition
1. Simple proteins
• Also known as homoproteins, they are
made up of amino acids. Examples are
plasma albumin, collagen, and keratin.
2. Conjugated proteins
• Sometimes also called heteroproteins,
they contain in their structure a non-
protein portion. Three examples are
glycoproteins, chromoproteins, and
phosphoproteins.
Fig. 1 – Human Fibronectin
 Protein classification based on shape
1. Fibrous proteins
• They have primarily mechanical and
structural functions, providing support to
the cells as well as the whole organism.
2. Globular proteins
• Most of the proteins belong to this class.
They have a compact and more or less
spherical structure, more complex than Fig. 2 – Collagen
fibrous proteins.
• Unlike fibrous proteins, that have structural
and mechanical functions, they act as:
– enzymes;
– hormones;
– membrane transporters and receptors;
– transporters of triglycerides, fatty acids and
oxygen in the blood;
– immunoglobulins or antibodies;
– grain and legume storage proteins. Fig. 3 – Haemoglobin
 Protein classification based on
biological functions
• Enzymes (biochemical catalysts).
• Transport proteins
Many small molecules, organic and inorganic, are
transported in the bloodstream and extracellular fluids,
across the cell membranes, and inside the cells from
one compartment to another, by specific proteins.
Examples are:
– hemoglobin, that carries oxygen from the alveolar blood
vessels to tissue capillaries;
transferrin, which carries iron in the blood;
membrane carriers;
fatty acid binding proteins (FABP)
• Storage proteins
Examples are:
ferritin, that stores iron intracellularly in a non-toxic
form;
milk caseins, that act as a reserve of amino acids for
the milk;
egg yolk phosvitin, that contains high amounts of
phosphorus;
prolamins and glutelins, the storage proteins of
cereals.
• Mechanical support
Proteins have a pivotal role in the stabilization of many
structures. Examples are α-keratins, collagen and
elastin. The same cytoskeletal system, the scaffold of
the cell, is made of proteins.
• They generate movement
They are responsible, among others, for:
– the contraction of the muscle fibers (of which myosin
is the main component);
the propulsion of spermatozoa and microorganisms
with flagella;
the separation of chromosomes during mitosis.
– They are involved in nerve transmission.
An example is the receptor for acetylcholine at
synapses.
– They control development and differentiation.
Some proteins are involved in the regulation of gene
expression. An example is the nerve growth factor
(NGF), discovered by Rita Levi-Montalcini, that plays a
leading role in the formation of neural networks.
• Hormones
Many hormones are proteins.
They are regulatory molecules involved in the control
of many cellular functions, from metabolism to
reproduction. Examples are insulin, glucagon, and
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH).
Example: Hormone: Insulin
• -Frederick Sanger (1940s, 50s), discovered the amino
acid sequence of Insulin
• -Causes cells to take up more glucose, and liver and
muscle cells to create glycogen
• -Diabetes is a deficiency of insulin
• Protection against harmful agents.
The antibodies or immunoglobulins are glycoproteins
that recognize antigens expressed on the surface of
viruses, bacteria and other infectious agents.
Interferon, fibrinogen, and factors of blood coagulation
are other members of this group.
• Storage of energy.
Proteins, and in particular the amino acids that
constitute them, act as energy storage, second in size
only to the adipose tissue, that in particular conditions,
such as prolonged fasting, may become essential for
survival.
 IV. NUCLEIC ACIDS

• The genetic material in any cell

–Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
• The monomers are called
nucleotides
• Nucleic acid polymers are millions of
monomers long, wound in a double helix
• Helix unwinds during replication (copying)
• Made up of CHONP
• Types of sugar bases:
 Classifications
1. DNA is the hereditary material passed on
from parents to offspring
-Structure: double-stranded
• -Phosphate group
• -Sugar  deoxyribose
• -Bases 
– Cytosine – Guanine
– Adenine – Thymine
Double Helix Structure of DNA
DNA Trivia
• The DNA from a single human cell has a length
of ~ 5.9 feet.
• The biggest cells are less than 0.1 inches
across
 2. RNA
• RNA-RiboNucleic Acid
• -Structure: single-stranded
• Basic units: nucleotides
– Phosphate group
– Sugar  ribose
– Bases 
• Cytosine – Guanine
• Adenine – Uracil
.
Three Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
• copies DNA’s code & carries the genetic
information to the ribosomes
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
• transfers amino acids to the ribosomes where
proteins are synthesized
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• along with protein, makes up the ribosomes

copyright cmassengale 50
Protein Synthesis
DNA and the Genetic Code
G- C
T- A
G- C
A- U
C- G
G- C
A- U
T- A
Translation - animation
 Name the Amino Acids
• GGG?
• UCA?
• CAU?
• GCA?
• AAA?

copyright cmassengale 55
END
 Examples
1. Enzymes
• Are proteins
• Speed up chemical reactions without being
consumed or using energy
• Enzymes
– Amylase - breaks down sugar
– Proteases - break down proteins
– Lipases - break down lipids
– Catalase - breaks down hydrogen peroxide
 Enzyme: Salivary Amylase
• Hydrolyzes starch while chewing
5. Movement: Actin and Myosin
Spider silk: a structural protein