General Psychology

Chapter 2
The Biological Basis of
Psychological Functioning
Biological Psychology
 Branch of psychology concerned with links
between biology and behavior (area
sometimes called neuroscience,
physiological psy., neurophsychology)
Neurons
 Neuron – nerve cell that
transmits information from one
part of the body to another via
neural impulses
Figure 2.1: A typical neuron with its major structures.
Structure of a Neuron
 Cell body – contains cell’s nucleus
 Dendrites – receive neural impulses
 Axon – carries impulses away from
the cell body to other cells
Structure of a Neuron
 Axon Terminals – where axons end in a
branching series of bare end points and
communicate with adjacent neurons
 Myelin – insulates and protects axon and
speeds impulses. Found on long-distance
carrying axon.
 Lossof myelin is the cause of multiple
sclerosis
Neurons, Con’t.
 No two neurons are exactly alike, but they have
structures in common
 Generally, dead neurons are not replaced by
new ones
 Functions of dead neurons can be taken over by
surviving neurons
 New research suggests that growth of new neurons
does occur in adult brains, but not as frequently as
before and right after birth
Main parts of a neuron

MainPartsNeuron.mov
 There are two processes when it comes to
neurons:
 1) what happens inside a neuron
 2) how neurons communicate with each
other.
Function of NT CLIP
Function of Neurons
 Transmit neural impulses from one part of
the nervous system to another
 Neural Impulse – rapid and reversible
change in the electrical charges inside and
outside a neuron
 Chemical ions – particles that carry a
small, measurable electrical charge that is
either positive or negative
Resting Potential
• When chemical ions are at rest, there are
more negative than positive ions in
the axon
• This is termed “resting potential” and
carries a charge of about -70mV
Figure 2.2: When a neuron is “at rest,” the electrical charge inside that neuron has a
significantly more negative charge (-70 mV) than is found outside the neuron (top).
When the neuron fires, an “action potential” occurs and travels rapidly down the
neuron (bottom). At this point, polarity reverses, and the inside actually becomes
positively
charged compared to the outside (+40 mV).
Action Potential
• When stimulated, the polarity of nerve cell
changes “depolarization”
• Then, the inside becomes positive, (about
+40mV)
• Eventually, the membrane returns to
normal, restoring the normal distribution of
ions across the membrane
Figure 2.3: Changes in electrical potential that occur during the
firing of a neuron. Note that the voltage is negative (-70 mV) when
the neuron is “at rest,” and positive (+40 mV) during the firing of the
impulse. Note, too, that the entire process lasts but a few
milliseconds.
Action Potential, Con’t.
 All-or-none principle – the neuron either
fires or it does not
 Neural threshold – the minimum amount
of stimulation needed to fire a neuron
Synaptic Transmission
 Synapse – where one neuron
communicates with other cells
 Synaptic cleft – space between a neuron
and the next cell
Figure 2.4: A synapse, in which transmission is from upper left to lower
right. As an impulse enters the axon terminal, vesicles release
neurotransmitter chemicals into the synaptic space, or cleft. The
neurotransmitter then either excites or inhibits an impulse in the next
neuron.
Synaptic Transmission
 Vesicles – small containers at axon
terminals that hold neurotransmitters
 Neurotransmitters – chemical molecules
released at a synapse that will either excite
or inhibit a reaction on the other side
 Receptor sites – where neurotransmitters
are received
Final step in synaptic Transmission

 Once released from receptor sites, the

neurotransmitters are either destroyed by
enzymes (degradation) or taken back into
the neuron from which they came
(reuptake)
Figure 2.5: Summary of the sequence of events that occur in synaptic transmission.
Neurotransmitters
 Acetylcholine (ACh) – widely used in
peripheral nervous system as either an
excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter
 Used both in the brain and between neurons
and muscles cells
 Important for learning and memory
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION CLIP

SynapticTransmission.mov
Neurotransmitters, Con’t.
 Norepinephrine – involved in activation,
vigilance, and mood regulation
 Dopamine – associated with the thought
and mood disturbances of some
psychological disorders, as well as
impairment of movement
Neurotransmitters, Con’t.
 In the case of depression, there are often
minimal amounts of serotonin in the brain
 Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors
(SSRIs, such as PROZAC) are often used
as treatment for depression
Neurotransmitters, Con’t.
 Serotonin – related to behaviors such as
sleep/wake cycle, and plays a role in
depression and aggression
 Endorphins – natural pain suppressors
(pain-relieving properties similar to
morphine)
Table 2.1: A summary of some major neurotransmitters.
The Human Nervous System
 CNS (Central nervous system) – all
neurons and supporting cells in the
spinal cord and brain
 PNS (Peripheral nervous system) –
all neurons NOT found in the brain
and spinal cord, but in the periphery of
the body (arms, face, intestines, etc.)
Figure 2.6: The various human nervous systems and how they are interrelated.
Peripheral Nervous System
 Somatic Nervous  Autonomic
System (SNS) Nervous System
 Includessensory (ANS)
and motor neurons  Includes neurons in
outside the CNS that PNS that activate
serve the sense smooth muscles
receptors and (e.g., stomach and
skeletal muscles glands)
 Divided into 2 parts
Autonomic Nervous System
 Sympathetic  Parasympathetic
Division Division
 Activewhen in a  Active
when we are
state of emotional relaxed
excitement or
stress
Endocrine System
 Network of glands that affects behavior through
the secretion of hormones
 Hormones influence behavior (and are secreted
directly into the blood stream)
 Pituitary gland – Master gland
 Controls body growth rate, water retention, release of
milk
 Regulates output of thyroid and adrenal glands
Endocrine System
 Thyroid gland – releases thyroxine,
hormone that regulates pace of body
functioning
 Adrenal glands – release adrenaline or
epinephrine at times of alarm or stress
Genetics and Psychological Traits

 Passing on of genetic information occurs

at conception
 Chromosomes, genes, and DNA are
passed on
 These produce chemicals, proteins, and
enzymes
Genetics and Psychological Traits

 Behavioral genetics – study of the effects

of genetics on psychological functioning
 Inbreeding studies – study of traits
across generations (ex. inbreeding of
horses)
 Family history studies – focuses on the
history of family traits
Genetics and Psychological Traits

 Human Genome Project – cataloged the

location of all human genes and seeks to
“read” strands of DNA
Figure 2.8: A view of the spinal column, showing the location of the
various spinal nerves and the parts of the body that they serve.
Figure 2.7: A cross-sectional view of the spinal column.
Function of the Spinal Cord
• Spinal cord is a mass of interconnected
neurons within the spinal column
• Transmits impulses to and from the brain
• Involved in spinal reflex behaviors
Figure 2.9: A spinal reflex.
Structure of the Spinal Cord
 Sensory neurons – carry impulses from
the sense receptors to the Central
Nervous System (CNS)
 Motor neurons – carry impulses away
from the CNS to muscles and glands
 Interneurons – neurons within the CNS
Figure 2.10: Some of the major structures of the human brain, of which
the cerebral cortex is clearly the largest.
The “Lower Brain Centers”
 Brainstem – lowest part of the brain, just
above the spinal cord, consisting of the
medulla and the pons
The “Lower Brain Centers”
 Medulla – monitors reflex function, such
as heart rate and respiration
 Pons – forms a bridge that organizes
fibers from spinal cord to brain and vice
versa. Involved in sleep-wake cycles.
The “Lower Brain Centers”
 Cerebellum – coordinates fine and rapid
muscular movements
 Damage to outer region of cerebellum
results in intention tremors – involuntary
trembling
 Damage to the inner areas results in
tremors at rest
The “Lower Brain Centers”
 Reticular formation – Network of nerve
fibers extending from the base of the brain
to the cerebrum
 Controls one’s level of arousal
The “Lower Brain Centers”
 Basal ganglia – collections of structures
in the center of the brain that are involved
in the control of large, slow movements
 Source of much of the brain’s dopamine
The “Lower Brain Centers”
 Parkinson’s disease – insufficient
dopamine in basal ganglia
 L-dopa – increases dopamine availability
 Transporting brain cells from human
fetuses into brains of Parkinson’s sufferers
can reverse the course of the disease
Figure 2.11: A view of the brain showing structures deep within it.
Limbic System
 Collection of structures near the middle of
the brain
 Involved in emotionality (anger,
aggression, ) and long-term memory
storage
Limbic System
 Amygdala – produces reactions of rage or
aggression when stimulated
 Septum – reduces intensity of emotional
responses
 Hippocampus – involved with formation
of memories for experiences
Limbic System
 Hypothalamus – consists of several
nuclei involved in feeding, drinking,
temperature regulation, sex, and
aggression
 Thalamus – projects sensory impulses to
appropriate areas of cerebral cortex
 Nucleiin thalamus may have role in
establishing normal sleep-wake patterns
The Cerebral Cortex
 Cerebral Cortex – large outer covering of
brain that is the seat of voluntary action
and cognitive functioning
Cerebral Cortex
 Neuroscientists study the brain by
 Examining damaged areas and loss of
function
 Surgical lesions or removals to see what
happens
 Stimulating the brain with electrodes
 EEG – measure of electrical activity in the
brain
Cerebral Cortex
 Imaging techniques
 CAT (or CT scan) – series of thousands of
X-ray images of the brain
 PET scan – shows function of brain via
illuminated radioactive traces
 MRI – measures movement of molecules in
the blood
Figure 2.12: The human cerebral cortex is divided into left and right hemispheres,
which, in turn, are divided into frontal, temporal, occipital, and parietal lobes.
Cerebral Cortex Function
 Sensory areas – receive and process
impulses from sense receptors
 Motor areas – where most voluntary
muscular movements originate
 Association areas – where incoming
sensory input integrates with motor
responses, and where higher mental
processes are thought to occur
Figure 2.13: A side view of the left cerebral hemisphere, showing the four lobes of
the cerebral cortex and areas of localization of function.
The Two Cerebral Hemispheres
 Corpus Callosum – network of fibers that
connects the two hemispheres. Separates
the functions of the left and right
hemispheres.
 Split-brain procedure – lesioning or
removing corpus callosum
 Last-resort treatment for epilepsy
Learning Disabilities and the Brain

 Learning disabilities –
problems/disorders in development of
language, speech, reading, and
associated communication skills
Learning Disabilities and the Brain

 Dyslexia – an impairment of reading skills

 Dyscalculia – impairment of arithmetic
skills
 Dysgraphia – difficulties in writing skills
The Two Sexes:
Male and Female Brains
 Aside from differences related directly to
reproductive function, there are very few
differences of real consequence between
male and female brains
 There is a difference in lateralization of
brains of left-handed vs. right-handed
persons, but no difference in cognitive
abilities