a bank of earth or stone built to carry a road or

railway over an area of low ground.

 FACTORS CONTROLLING SELECTION OF
ROAD ALIGNMENT
There are a number of factors which are to be
considered while selecting the alignment of roads.
These factors also vary according to the type of
roads and the areas through which these roads
pass.
The factors which control alignment of roads in
plain areas are:

1. CLASS & PURPOSE

The alignment of the road may be decided
keeping in mind the class and purpose of the
road.

National and state highways between two

stations should be aligned as straight as
possible whereas in the case of other types of
roads, deviation may be permitted if necessary
2. OBLIGATORY POINTS

The roads are basically constructed for

the development of the areas.

Their alignments should necessarily pass

through important towns, group of
villages and places of religious, social,
political and commercial importance.
3. TYPE OF VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

The alignment should be provided

according to the type of vehicular
traffic.

In case of fast moving traffic, the road

alignment should be as straight as
possible whereas in case of bullock
carts, tongas, etc, the alignment may
even have sharp bends.
4. GRADIENT
The alignment of roads should be selected so that
longitudinal slopes are not steeper than ruling
gradient. To achieve this, the alignment might need
a deviation from straight line.

5. HORIZONTAL CURVES
The alignment of roads should be provided with flat
curves wherever found necessary.
In case of national and state highways, the radius of
horizontal curve should not be less than 230 m.
In order to have minimum radius the alignment must
be changed.
6. SIGHT DISTANCE
The alignment of roads should be decided such
that minimum sight distance is available for
drivers of the vehicles.

7. OBSTRUCTIONS
The alignment of roads is decided keeping in
mind the obstruction.
For example, the alignment should be changed to
avoid marshy land, ponds, wells, graveyards,
historical monumental and religious sites etc.
Sight distance is the length of roadway
visible to a driver.
8. CROSS DRAINAGE WORKS
The alignment should be adjusted so that
minimum number of cross drainage work are
required. To achieve this, the alignment should
be chosen along the water shed line if possible.

9. BRIDGES
While crossing river, the sites should provide all
the requirements needed for a good bridge
construction. The alignment of the road should
cross the river at 900 to avoid construction of
skew bridge.
Cross drainage works is a structure constructed
when there is a crossing of canal and natural drain,
to prevent the drain water from mixing into canal
water.
By mixing two or three streams into one and only
onecross drainage work to be constructed, making
the structure economical.
A watershed is an area of
land that drains rain water
or snow into one location
such as a stream,
lake or wetland.
An arch (or bridge) with the line of the arch not at
right angles to the abutment.
10. RAILWAY CROSSING
A road alignment should cross a railway
preferably at 900.

11. FORMATION BED

The selected alignment should be through such
areas which provide good formation bed.

12. EARTH WORK

To avoid excessive cutting and filling, the
alignment should be changed where found
necessary.
In earthmoving, cut and fill is the process of
constructing a railway, road or canal whereby the
amount of material from cuts roughly matches the
amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments,
so minimizing the amount of construction labor.
13. AGRICULTURAL LAND AND DENSE FORESTS
The alignment of roads should be decided so that
costly agricultural land and dense forests are
avoided for the acquisition of the land.

14. EXISTING RIGHT OF WAY (ROW)

In case upgrading a road, its existing right of way
should be utilized for curtailing the cost of land
acquisition.

15. PUBLIC DEMAND

The selected alignment of the road should meet
the public demand of the area.
 BASIC REQUIREMENTS
The basic requirements of an ideal alignment
between two stations are that it should be:
1) SHORT
2) EASY
3) SAFE
4) ECONOMICAL

Alignment should be such that it would offer

maximum utility by serving maximum
population and products
 ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR
HIGHWAY LOCATION
Before Highway Alignment is finalized in Highway
projects, engineering surveys are to be carried
out in following stages
1) Map Study
2) Reconnaissance Surveys
3) Preliminary Surveys
4) Location Surveys
 MAP STUDY
This is the first step of the Engineering survey,
using a topographic map of the area under
consideration, which can be availed from the
Survey of India, we can propose different
alternatives of the road alignment.

Different Alignment are drawn on map passing

minimum number of obstructions and maximum
utilization area.

Road should connect many villages so that

people should be benefited.
 This topographic map in general have a contour interval
of around 30 m to 40 m.

 We can get the details of the natural and artificial

features of the area using the topographic map, and
accordingly we can suggest a numbers of alternatives
for the road alignment.

 These routes are further studied in the Reconnaissance

survey.

 A topographical map is detailed and accurate 2d

representation of natural human made features on
earths surface.
 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY
It is done by visiting site location for detailing
features which are not available on map.

So in the second step a survey team is headed to

the area under study with the minor surveying
instruments like Abney level, Tangent Clinometer
etc. to do a rough survey of the area under
study.
The rough survey is done along the alternatives
proposed in the map study and feasibility of the
road alignment is checked along the different
routes.
.
Some of the routes may be cancelled out or they may be
changed if they appear to impossible in this study. So
finally they will have a set of routes which are to be further
studied in the next step
A clinometer may be used to measure angles as
they relate to the slope of buildings.
The aneroid barometer can store a week's
worth of data
 PRELIMINARY SURVEY
 In this step the alternative routes which are
proposed after a rough survey in the second
step are surveyed in details using some
advanced instruments like levels, chain and
theodolite.
 Aerial Photogrammetry is best suited for this
type of survey.
All the necessary details to carry out the
comparative study of the different routes are
collected and then finally we have to decide one
alignment best suited for the alignment of the
road.
 Here various details are found out along the
stretches of the routes, which can also be found
using the aerial techniques by taking photographs
along the routes and then further processed to find
out the final details of the area.

 Different kind of surveys like, Soil investigations,

cross sectioning and profiling,hydrology data
collection, obligatory points, industries
and population surveys are necessary along the
routes and only then it is possible to have a fair
comparison of the different routes.

 So finally one among all of them is choosen and

drawings are prepared on the sheet which will show
its alignment to be shifted on to the ground.
 LOCATION SURVEY
In this fourth phase of the Engineering Survey
for the highway location, we have a drawing of
the alignment and we have to go through the
further two processes:

(a) Location
(b) Detailed Survey
 LOCATION
 Location of the centre line of the road is done
with very much precise instrument like
Theodolite and Chain using the drawing
prepared or the details gathered in the third
step(i.e. Preliminary survey).

 This is done by staking the ground with the

stakes inserted at the intervals of 50 m to 100
m in the plain area, 50 m to 75 m in the rolling
terrain and 30 m to 50 m in the hills and steep
terrain.
Pegs are driven at all the control points.
At the curves control points, starting of the
transition curve, starting of the circular curve
and terminal of the circular curve and the
terminal of the transition curve the pegs/stakes
are driven into the ground to firmly locate these
control points.

Bench marks are located at an interval of 250 m

and they are necessarily located at the sites of
the cross drainage works.
 DETAILED SURVEY
 In this part we have to carry out the detailed
study of the final route using some very precise
instruments like Theodolite and Chain to gather
all the necessary data for the final estimation,
design and preparing drawings using which the
construction can be started.

A detailed project report(DPR) is to be prepared

and all the necessary data is collected to
prepare that report.
So, the profiling, cross-sectioning and soil
investigation are carried out very precisely.

CBR values are also found to find out the design

thickness of the pavement.

 After collecting the data a final drawing a

Detailed Project Report(DPR) is prepared which
concludes the highway planning part.
Alignment finalized at design office after
preliminary survey, is to be first located by
establishing the center line.

Center line of road finalized is translated on

ground during location survey.

Detailed survey is done to fix temporary bench

mark and leveling work is used for drainage
and earthwork calculations.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE HIGHWAY
ALIGNMENT
1. Obligatory points:
These are the control points governing the alignment of
the highway; these are divided in to two categories:
a) Obligatory points through which the alignment should
pass: in which the alignment may deviate from the
shortest and easiest path. ex bridge site, intermediate
town, mountain pass and quarry etc.

When it is necessary to pass a hill range, high ridges, the

various alternatives are to cut through a tunnel across
or to go around the hill or deviate until a suitable hill
pass is available.
The suitability of these alternatives depends on many
other facts topography, site condition and cost
considerations.
BRIDGE SITE

The Bridge can be located only where the river

has straight and permanent path and also where
the abutment and pier can be strongly founded.

The road approach to the bridge should not be

curved and skew crossing should be avoided as
possible.

Thus to locate a bridge the highway alignment

may be changed.
b) OBLIGATORY POINTS THROUGH WHICH THE
ALIGNMENT SHOULD NOT PASS:
 Points may also make the alignment to deviate from
shortest alignment proposed.
 The obligatory points which should be avoided
while aligning a road are religious places, costly
structures, unsuitable land.
 The religious places like temple , mosque, church,
tomb, heritage structure ,etc which are governed
by the law for acquiring .
 Regarding costly structures requires huge finance
to compensate which in turn escalates the cost of
the alignment
 2. TRAFFIC
 The alignment should suit the traffic requirements.
 Based on the origin- destination data of the area,
the desire lines should be drawn.
 The new alignment should be drawn keeping in view
the desire lines, traffic flow pattern etc.
Geometric design: Geometric design factors such as
gradient, radius of curve, sight distance etc. also
govern the alignment of the highway.
 To keep the radius of curve minimum, it may be
required to change the alignment.
 The alignments should be finalized such that the
obstructions to visibility do not restrict the minimum
requirements of sight distance.
 The design standards vary with the class of road
and the terrain and accordingly the highway should
be aligned.
 Economy: The alignment finalized should be
economical.
 All the three costs i.e. construction, maintenance,
and operating cost should be minimum.
 The construction cost can be decreased much if it
is possible to maintain a balance between cutting
and filling.
 Also try to avoid very high embankments and very
deep cuttings as the construction cost will be very
higher in these cases.
 3. GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius
of curve and sight distance also would govern the
final alignment of the highway.

 If straight alignment is aimed at, often it may be

necessary to provide very steep gradients.
 As far as possible while aligning a new road, the
gradient should be flat and less than ruling or design
gradient.

 Thus it may be necessary to change the alignment in

view of the design speed, maximum allowable super
elevation and coefficient of lateral friction
 It may be necessary to make adjustment in
horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the
minimum radius of curve and the transition curves.

 The absolute minimum sight distance, which should

invariably be available in every section of the road,
is the safe stopping distance for the fast moving
vehicles.

 Also there should be enough distance visible ahead

for safe overtaking operations of vehicles moving at
the design speed on the road.
 Hence the alignment should be finalized in such a
way that the obstructions to visibility do not cause
restrictions to the sight distance requirements.
 4. ECONOMICS
 The alignment finalized based on the above factors
should also be economical.

 In working out the economics, the initial cost of

maintenance and vehicle operation should be
taken into account.

 The initial cost of construction can be decreased if

high embankments and deep cuttings are avoided
and the alignment is chosen in a manner to
balance the cutting and filling.
5. OTHER CONSIDERATION
Stability
Drainage consideration, political
consideration.
Surface water level, high flood level
Environmental consideration
Resisting length
 STABILITY
i) A common problem in hilly roads is land sliding
ii) The cutting and filling of the earth to construct
the roads on hilly sides causes steepening of
existing slope and affect its stability.
DRAINAGE
i) Avoid the cross drainage structures.
ii) The number of cross drainage structures
should be minimum
GEOMETRIC STANDARDS OF HILL ROADS
i) Gradient, curve and speed.
ii) Sight distance, radius of curve
RESISTING LENGTH

i) The total work to be done to move the loads

along route taking horizontal length , the
actual difference in level between two
stations and the sum of the in effective rise
and fall in excess of floating gradient. Should
kept as low as possible