DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

INTRODUCTION

 Every cell of the body requires nutrients, yet most cells cannot leave
their position in the body and travel to a food source. The DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM must help deliver food to them
FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
 Ingestion of food: food and water enter the body through the
mouth
 Digestion of food: during process of digestion, food is broken down
from complex particles to smaller molecules than can be absorbed
 Absorption of nutrients: The epithelial cells that line the lumen of the
small intestine absorb the small molecules of nutrients (amino acids,
monosaccharides, fatty acids, vitamins minerals, water) that result
from the digestive process
 Elimination of wastes: undigested material such as fiber from food,
plus waste products excreted into the digestive tract are eliminated
in the feces
ANATOMY AND HISTOLOGY OF THE
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
 Consists of the Digestive Tract or Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract plus
specific associated organs
 The digestive tract is consists of the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus
 Salivary glands empty into the oral cavity and the liver and
pancreas are connected to the small intestine
Four layers or tunics

 Mucosa
 Submucosa
 Muscularis
 Serosa/Adventitia
Mucosa

 Innermost tunic, consists of mucous epithelium ,loose connective

tissue called the lamina propria and a thin smooth muscle layer the
muscularis mucosae
 The epithelium in the mouth, esophagus and anus resist abrasion
and the epithelium in the stomach and intestine absorbs and
secretes
Submucosa

 Lies just outside the mucosa.

 It is a thick layer of loose connective tissue containing nerves, blood
vessels and small glands. An extensive network of nerve cell
processes forms a plexus (network). Autonomic nerves innervate this
plexus
Muscularis

 In most parts of the digestive tract it consists of an inner layer of

circular smooth muscle and an outer layer of longitudinal smooth
muscle
 Another nerve plexus also innervated by autonomic nerves, lies
between the two muscle layers. Together, nerve plexuses of the
submucosa and muscularis compose the ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM.
This nervous system which is a division of the ANS is extremely
important in controlling movement and secretion within the tract
SEROSA/ADVENTITIA

 Outermost layer of the digestive tract

 Consists of peritoneum which is a smooth epithelial layer and its
underlying connective tissue
 Regions of the digestive tract not covered by peritoneum are
covered by a connective tissue layer called adventitia which is
continuous with the surrounding connective tissue
PERITONEUM

 SEROUS MEMBRANES that covers the body wall of the abdominal

cavity and abdominal organs
 Serosa or Visceral peritoneum: serous membranes that covers the
organs
 Parietal Peritoneum: serous membrane that lines the wall of the
abdominal cavity
MESENTERY

 Many of the organs of the abdominal cavity are held in place by

connective tissue sheets called MESENTERIES
 Mesentery:general term referring to the serous membranes
attached to abdominal organs
 Lesser omentum: mesentery connecting the lesser curvature of the
stomach to the liver and diaphragm
 Greater omentum: mesentery connecting the greater curvature of
the stomach to the transverse colon and posterior body wall
 Mesentery proper: mesentery that attaches the small intestine to the
posterior abdominal wall
 Other abdominal organs lie against the abdominal wall, have no
mesenteries and are described as RETROPERITONEAL
 Retroperitoneal organs include: DUODENUM, PANCREAS,
ASCENDING COLON, DESCENDING COLON, RECTUM, KIDNEYS,
ADRENAL GLANDS AND URINARY BLADDER
ORAL CAVITY, PHARYNX AND
ESOPHAGUS
ANATOMY OF THE ORAL CAVITY

 ORAL CAVITY OR MOUTH

 First part of the digestive tract
 Bounded by lips, cheeks and contains teeth and tongue
 Lips are muscular structures, formed mostly by the orbicularis oris
muscle
 The outer surfaces of the lips are covered by skin
 Keratinized stratified epithelium of the skin becomes thin at the
margin of the lips.
 The color from the underlying blood vessels can be seen through the
thin, transparent epithelium, giving the lips a reddish pink
appearance
 Cheeks form the lateral walls of the oral cavity
 Buccinator muscles located within the cheeks, flatten the cheeks
against the teeth.
 The lips and cheeks are important in the process of mastication or
chewing. They help manipulate the food within the oral cavity and
hold the food in place while the teeth crush or tear it
 Mastication begins the process of mechanical digestion which
breaks down large food particles into smaller ones
 The cheeks also help form words during the speech process
 Tongue: a large muscular organ that occupies most of the oral
cavity. Major attachment of the tongue is in the posterior part of the
oral cavity
 The anterior part of the tongue is relatively free except for an
anterior attachment to the floor of the mouth by a thin fold of tissue
called the frenulum
 The anterior two-thirds of the tongue is covered by papillae, some of
which contain taste buds.
 The posterior one-third of the tongue is devoid of papillae and has
only a few scattered taste buds
 The tongue moves food in the mouth and in cooperation with the
lips and cheeks, holds the food in place during mastication
 It also plays a major role in the process of swallowing.
 The tongue is also a major sensory organ of taste as well as one of
the major organs of speech
TEETH

 There are 32 teeth in the normal adult mouth, located in the

mandible and maxillae
 The teeth can be divided into quadrants: RIGHT UPPER, RIGHT
LOWER, LEFT UPPER AND LEFT LOWER
 In adults, each quadrant contains one central and one lateral
INCISOR; one CANINE; first and second PREMOLARS; first, second
and third MOLARS. The third molars are called WISDOM TEETH
because they usually appear in the late teens or early twenties.
 Permanent teeth or secondary teeth: teeth of adults; most of them
are replacements for the 20 primary teeth or deciduous teeth or
also called milk or baby teeth which are lost during childhood
 Each tooth is consists of a CROWN with one or more cusps (points)a
neck and a root
 The center of the tooth is a pulp cavity which is filled with blood
vessels, nerves and connective tissue called PULP.
 The pulp cavity is surrounded by a living, cellular, bonelike tissue
called DENTIN
 The dentin of the tooth crown is covered by an extremely hard,
acellular substance called ENAMEL which protects the tooth against
abrasion and acids produced by bacteria in the mouth
 The surface of the dentin in the root is covered with CEMENTUM
which helps anchor the tooth in the jaw
 Teeth are rooted within alveoli along the alveolar processes of the
mandible and maxillae
 GINGIVA or GUMS: covers the alveolar processes; dense fibrous
connective tissue and moist stratified squamous epithelium
 PERIODONTAL LIGAMENTS: hold the teeth in place; connective tissue
fibers that extend from the alveolar walls and are embedded into
the cementum
 Formation of dental caries or tooth decay is the result of the
breakdown of enamel by acids produced by bacteria on the tooth
surface
 Enamel is non living and cannot repair itself.
PALATE AND TONSILS

PALATE: rood of the oral cavity, separates the oral cavity from the
nasal cavity and prevents food from passing into the nasal cavity
during chewing and swallowing
Consists of : HARD AND SOFT PALATE
HARD PALATE: anterior part contains bone
SOFT PALATE: posterior portion consists of skeletal muscle and
connective tissue
UVULA: a posterior extension of the soft palate
TONSILS: located in the lateral walls of the oral cavity, in the
nasopharynx and in the posterior surface of the tongue
SALIVARY GLANDS

 THREE MAJOR PAIRS: PAROTID, SUBMANDIBULAR, SUBLINGUAL

GLANDS
 Salivary glands produce saliva, which is a mixture of serous (watery)
and mucous fluids.
 1. PAROTID: largest salivary gland, located just anterior to each ear.
Parotid ducts enter the oral cavity adjacent to the second upper
molars
 MUMPS: inflammation of the parotid gland caused by viral infection
SALIVARY GLANDS

 2. SUBMANDIBULAR GLANDS: produce more serous than mucous

secretions
 Each gland can be felt as a soft lump along the inferior border of
the mandible
 The submandibular ducts open into the oral cavity on each side of
the frenulum of the tongue
 3. SUBLINGUAL GLANDS: smallest glands; produce primarily mucous
secretions
 They lie immediately below the mucous membrane in the floor of
the oral cavity
 Each sublingual gland has 10-12 small ducts opening onto the floor
of the oral cavity
SALIVA

 Helps keep the oral cavity moist and contains enzymes that begin
the process of digestion
 Saliva is secreted at the rate approximately 1 liter (L) per day
 It contains an enzyme called salivary amylase, which enhances the
sweet taste of food because it breaks down covalent bonds
between glucose molecules in starch and other polysaccharides to
produce maltose and isomaltose
 Saliva protects the mouth from bacterial infection by washing the
oral cavity with LYSOZYME, a mildly antibacterial enzyme
SALIVA

 Saliva neutralizes the pH in the mouth, which reduces harmful

effects of bacterial acids on tooth enamel
 Cooking and thorough chewing of food disrupt the cellulose
covering and increase the efficiency of the digestive process
 Salivary gland secretion is regulated primarily by ANS
 Sympathetic stimulation increases mucous content of saliva (may
have dry mouth and thick mucus)
MASTICATION

 Food taken into the mouth is chewed or masticated by the teeth

 Incisors and canines primarily cut and tear food, whereas premolars
and molars primarily crush and grind it
 Mastication increases efficiency of digestion because digestive
enzymes act on molecules only at the surface of food particles
PHARYNX

 OR THROAT
 Connects mouth with the esophagus consists of three parts:
NASOPHARYNX, OROPHARYNX, LARYNGOPHARYNX
 Normally only the oropharynx and laryngopharynx transmit food
 The posterior wall of the oropharynx and laryngopharynx are formed
by the superior, middle and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscles
ESOPHAGUS

 A muscular tube lined with moist stratified squamous epithelium, that

extends from the pharynx to the stomach
 It is about 25 cm long and lies anterior to the vertebrae and
posterior to the trachea within the mediastinum
 Upper two- thirds of esophagus has skeletal muscle in its wall, while
the lower one- third has smooth muscle in its wall.
 It passes thru the diaphragm and ends at the stomach
ESOPHAGUS

 Transports food from the pharynx into the stomach

 Upper and lower ESOPHAGEAL SPHINCTERS, located at the upper
and lower ends of the esophagus respectively regulate the
movement of food into and out of the esophagus
 CARDIAC SPHINCTER: lower esophageal sphincter
SWALLOWING

 THREE PHASES OF SWALLOWING : VOLUNTARY PHASE, PHARYNGEAL

PHASE AND ESOPHAGEAL PHASE
 VOLUNTARY PHASE: a bolus of food is pushed by the tongue against
the hard and soft palates and posteriorly toward the oropharynx
 PHARYNGEAL PHASE: soft palate is elevated, closing off the
nasopharynx. Pharynx and larynx are elevated
 Successive constriction of the PHARYNGEAL CONSTRICTORS from
superior to inferior forces the bolus through the pharynx and into the
esophagus. As this occurs, the vestibular and vocal folds expand
medially to close the passage of the larynx. The epiglottis is bent
down over the opening of the larynx largely by the force of the
bolus pressing against it
SWALLOWING

 As the inferior pharyngeal constrictor contracts, the upper

esophageal sphincter relaxes allowing the bolus to enter the
esophagus
 ESOPHAGEAL PHASE: the bolus is moved by peristaltic contractions
of the esophagus toward the stomach
ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH
STOMACH

 Enlarged segment of the digestive tract in the left superior part of

the abdomen
 Gastroesophageal opening: opening from the esophagus into the
stomach
 Cardiac region: region of the stomach around gastroesophageal
opening (near the heart)
 Fundus: the most superior part of the stomach
 Body of stomach: largest part of the stomach, forming a greater
curvature on the left and lesser curvature on the right
 Pyloric opening: opening from the stomach into the small intestine; it
is surrounded by a relatively thick ring of smooth muscle called the
pyloric sphincter
STOMACH

 Pyloric region: the region of the stomach near the pyloric opening
 Muscular layers of the stomach: 1. outer longitudinal layer 4. middle
circular layer 3. inner oblique layer
 These muscular layers produce a churning action in the stomach
important in the digestive process
 The submucosa and mucosa of the stomach are thrown into large
folds called RUGAE when the stomach is empty. These folds allow
the mucosa and submucosa to stretch and the folds disappear as
the stomach filled
 The stomach is lined with simple columnar epithelium
 The epithelial cells can be divided into 5 groups:
 The first group of cells consists surface mucous cells on the inner surface
of the stomach and lining gastric pits (openings for gastric glands);
these cells produce mucus which protects coats and protects the
stomach lining
 The remaining 4 cell types are:
 1. mucous neck cells: produce mucus
 2. parietal cells: produce hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor
 3. endocrine cells, which produce regulatory chemicals
 4. Chief cells: produce pepsinogen, a precursor of the protein-digesting
enzyme pepsin
SECRETIONS OF THE STOMACH

 The stomach functions primarily as storage and mixing chamber for

ingested food
 FOOD ENTERS STOMACH, IT IS MIXED WITH STOMACH SECRETIONS TO
BECOME SEMIFLUID MIXTURE CALLED CHYME.
 Stomach secretions from the gastric glands include Hydrochloric
acid (HCL), pepsin, mucus and intrinsic factor
 HCL produces pH of about 2.0 in the stomach-kills microorganisms
and activates pepsin from its inactive form (pepsinogen)
 A thick layer of mucus lubricates the epithelial cells of stomach wall
and protects them from the damaging effect of the acidic chime
and pepsin
 Intrinsic factor binds with vit. B12 and makes it more readily
absorbed in the small intestine (Vit B12 is impt in DNA synthesis and
RBC production)
 Regulation of stomach secretions: approx. 2L of gastric secretions
are produced each day.Both nervous and hormonal mechanisms
regulate gastric secretions
 Three phases of regulation of stomach secretions:
 1. cephalic phase 2. gastric phase 3. intestinal phase
 1. cephalic phase: sensations (taste, smell of food) stimulate centers
within the medulla oblongata influence gastric secretions ( HCl,
pepsin, mucus and Intrinsic factor, gastrin, histamine)
 Histamine is the most potent stimulator of HCL secretion
 2. gastric phase: period during which the greatest volume of gastric
secretion occurs. This phase is activated by the presence of food in
the stomach. Food is mixed with gastric secretions. PEPTIDES
stimulate the secretion of gastrin
 3. intestinal phase: inhibits gastric secretions. It is controlled by the
entrance of chime into the duodenum which initiates both neural
and hormonal mechanisms. Hormone Secretin & hormone
Cholecystokinin released from duodenum inhibits gastric secretions
in response to low pH
MOVEMENT IN THE STOMACH

 Two types of movement that aid digestion and move chime through
the digestive tract : Mixing waves and Peristaltic waves
 Both types of movement result from smooth muscle contractions in
the stomach wall. Contractions occur every 20 seconds and
proceed from the body of stomach toward the pyloric sphincter
 Relatively weak contractions result in MIXING WAVES, which
thoroughly mix ingested food with stomach secretions to form
chyme
 Stronger contractions result in PERISTALTIC WAVES, which force the
chyme toward and through the pyloric sphincter
7
SMALL INTESTINE
SMALL INTESTINE (SI)(anatomy)

 It is about 6 meters long and consists of three parts : DUODENUM,

JEJUNUM AND ILEUM
 DUODENUM: about 25 cm long
 JEJUNUM: about 2.5 m long and makes up two fifths of the total
length of the SI
 ILEUM: about 3.5 m long and makes yup three-fifths of the small
intestine
 Duodenum nearly completes a 180 degree arc as it curves within
the abdominal cavity. Part of pancreas lies within this arc
 The common bile duct from the liver and the pancreatic duct from
the pancreas join and empty into the duodenum
 FUNCTION OF SI: major site of digestion and absorption of food,
which are accomplished due to the presence of a large surface
area
 The SI has three modifications that increase its surface area: circular
folds, villi and microvilli
 Mucosa of SI is simple columnar epithelium with four major cell
types: 1. absorptive cells 2.Goblet cells 3. granular cells 4. endocrine
cells
 Peyer’s Patches: clusters of lymphatic nodules, help protect
intestinal tract from harmful pathogens
 Ilieocecal junction: site where the ileum connects to the large
intestines. It has a ring of smooth muscle, the ileocecal sphincter
and ilieocecal valve which allow intestinal contents to move from
ileum to the large intestine.
MOVEMENT IN THE SI

 Mixing and propulsion of chime are the primary mechanical events

that occur in the SI
 Peristaltic contractions proceed along the length of the intestine for
variable distances and cause the chyme to move along the SI
 Segmental contrations:propagated for only short distances and mix
intestinal contents
ABSORPTION IN SI

 Major function of SI is the ABSORPTION OF NUTRIENTS

 Most absorption occurs in the DUODENUM AND JEJUNUM although
some absorption also occurs in the ileum
LIVER AND PANCREAS
Anatomy of liver

 Weight of liver: about 1.36 kilograms (kg)

 Located at the right upper quadrant of the abdomen tucked
against the inferior surface of the diaphragm
 Posterior surface of the liver is in contact with the right ribs
 Divided into two major lobes:Right lobe and the left lobe, which are
separated by a connective tissue septum, the falciform ligament
 Two smaller lobes, caudate lobe and quadrate lobe can be seen
from an inferior view
 Porta: is the “gate” through which blood vessels , ducts and nerves
enter or exit the live
 Liver receives blood from two sources:
 Hepatic artery: carries oxygen rich blood to liver
 Hepatic portal vein: carries blood that are oxygen poor but rich in
absorbed nutrients and other substances from the digestive tract to
the liver
 Blood exits the liver through hepatic veins which empties into the
inferior vena cava
 A system of ducts from the liver to the duodenum serves as pathway
for bile and other secretions
 BILE: produced by hepatocytes, flows thru bile canaliculi to the
hepatic ducts in the portal triad ( portal triad: hepatic duct, hepatic
artery hepatic portal vein)
 Hepatic ducts converge and empty into the right and left hepatic
ducts, which transport bile out of the liver
 The right and left hepatic ducts unite to form a single COMMON
HEPATIC DUCT and is joined by the cystic duct from the gallbladder
to form the COMMON BILE DUCT
 Gallbladder: a small sac on the inferior surface of the liver that stores
and concentrates bile
 The common bile duct joins the pancreatic duct and opens into the
duodenum at the duodenal papilla
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
FUNCTION EXPLANATION
DIGESTION Bile neutralizes stomach acid and
emulsifies fats, which facilitates fat
digestion
EXCRETION Bile contains excretory products such
as cholesterol, fats and bile
pigments(bilirubin) that result from
hemoglobin breakdown
NUTRIENT STORAGE Liver cells remove sugar from the
blood and store it in the form of
glycogen, they also store fat, vits A,
B12,D, E and K, copper and iron
FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER
FUNCTION EXPLANATION
NUTRIENT CONVERSION Liver cells convert some nutrients into
others for example, amino acids can
be converted to lipids or glucose, fats
can be converted to phospholipids
and vit D is converted to its active
form
DETOXIFICATION OF HARMFUL Liver cells remove ammonia from the
CHEMICALS circulation and convert it to urea,
which is eliminated in the urine; other
substances are detoxified and
secreted in the bile or excreted in the
urine
FUNCTIONS OF LIVER

function explanation
Synthesis of new molecules Liver synthesizes blood proteins, such
as albumin, fibrinogen, globulins and
clotting factors
CONTROLOF BILE SECRETION AND
RELEASE
 1. Vagus nerve stimulation causes the gallbladder to contract,
thereby releasing bile into the duodenum
 2. Secretin, produced by the duodenum and carried through the
circulation to the liver, stimulates bile secretion by the liver
 3. Cholecystokinin, produced by the duodenum and carried
through the circulation to the gallbladder, stimulates the
gallbladder to contract and the sphincters to relax, thereby
releasing bile into the duodenum
 4. Bile salts also stimulate bile secretion. Over 90% of bile salts are
reabsorbed in the ileum and returned to the liver, where they
stimulate additional secretion of bile salts
ANATOMY OF THE PANCREAS
PANCREAS

 Is located retroperitoneal, posterior to the stomach in the inferior

part of the left upper quadrant
 It has a head near the midline of the body, and a tail that extends
to the left, where it touches the spleen
 Composed of both endocrine and exocrine tissues that perform
several functions
 ENDOCRINE PART: consists of PANCREATIC ISLETS OR ISLETS OF
LANGERHANS. The islet cells produce the hormones INSULIN AND
GLUCAGON which enter the blood. These hormones are important
in controlling blood levels of nutrients, such as glucose and amino
acids
PANCREAS

 Exocrine part of the pancreas is a compound acinar gland.

 The acini produce digestive enzymes.
 Clusters of acini are connected by small ducts, which join to form
larger ducts and the larger ducts join to form the pancreatic duct
 The pancreatic duct joins the common bile duct and empties into
the duodenum
FUNCTIONS OF THE PANCREAS

 Bicarbonate ions (exocrine secretion) neutralizes the acidic chime

that enters small intestine from the stomach.
 Increased pH (alkaline) resulting from the secretion of icarbonate
ions (HCO3-) stops pepsin digestion but provides the proper
environment for the function of PANCREATIC ENZYMES
 Pancreatic enzymes in exocrine secretions are important in
digesting all major classes of food (lipids, proteins and CHO)
Functions of pancreas

 Major proteolytic (protein-digesting) enzymes are :

-TRYPSIN, CHYMOTRIPSIN,CARBOXYPEPTIDASE (These enzymes
continue protein digestion that started in the stomach)
 PANCREATIC AMYLASE- continues polysaccharide digestion that
began in the oral cavity
 Pancreatic enzymes also include LIPASE (lipid-digesting enzyme)
and NUCLEASES (enzymes that digest DNA and RNA)
CONTROL over the Pancreas

 The exocrine secretory activity of the pancreas is controlled by

hormonal and neural mechanisms
 Secretin initiates the release of a watery pancreatic solution that
contains a large amount of bicarbonate ions
 Primary stimulus for secretin release: presence of acidic chyme in
duodenum
 Primary stimulus of cholecystokinin release is presence of fatty acids
and amino acids in the duodenum in turn pancreatic enzymes act
to digest these fatty acids and amino acids
 Parasysmpathetic stimulation through the vagus nerves also
stimulates the secretion of pancreatic juices rich in pancreatic
enzymes
 Sympathetic action potentials inhibit pancreatic secretion
LARGE INTESTINE
ANATOMY OF THE LARGE INTESTINE

 Consists of the CECUM, COLON, RECTUM, ANAL CANAL

CECUM

 the proximal end of the large intestine where it joins with the small
intestine at the ileocecal junction
 Located in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen near the iliac
fossa
 The cecum is a sac that extends inferiorly about 6 cm past the
ileocecal junction
 Attached to the cecum is a tube about 9 cm long called the
appendix.
COLON

 Is about 1.5 -1.8 m long and consists of 4 parts:

 1. Ascending colon
 2. Transverse colon
 3. Descending colon
 4. Sigmoid colon
Colon

 Ascending colon: extends superiorly from the cecum to the right

colic flexure, near the liver, where it turns to the left
 Transverse colon: extends from the right colic flexure to the left colic
flexure near the spleen, where the colon turns inferiorly
 Descending colon: extends from the left colic flexure to the pelvis
where it becomes the Sigmoid colon
 Sigmoid colon: forms an S-shaped tube that extends medially and
then inferiorly into the pelvic cavity and ends at the rectum
 The mucosal lining of the colon contains tubular glands called
CRYPTS which contain goblet cells
RECTUM

 A straight muscular tube that begins at the termination of the

sigmoid colon and ends at the anal canal
 The muscular tunic (layer) is composed of smooth muscle and is
relatively thick in the rectum compared to the rest of the digestive
tract
ANAL CANAL

 The last 2-3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal.

 It begins at the inferior end of the rectum and ends at the anus
(external digestive tract opening)
 The smooth muscle layer of the anal canal is thicker than that of the
rectum and forms the internal anal sphincter at its superior end
 The external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal is
formed by skeletal muscle
FUNCTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE

 Normally , 18-24 hours are required for material to pass through the
large intestine, in contrast to the 3-5 hours required for chime to
move through the small intestine
 While in the colon chyme is converted into FECES (fecal material)
 FORMATION OF FECES: involves the absorption of water and salts,
the secretion of mucus and extensive action of microorganisms
 The colon stores the feces until they are eliminated by the process of
DEFECATION
 Microorganism that inhabit the colon reproduce rapidly and
constitute 30% of the dry weight of feces
 Some bacteria in feces synthesize Vit. K and other vitamins
 Every 8-12 hours, large parts of the colon undergo MASS
MOVEMENTS ( strong contractions) which propel the colon contents
a considerable distance toward the anus. These mass movements
are common following some meals especially breakfast.
 Feces distend the rectal wall and stimulate defecation reflex which
involves local and parasympathetic reflexes
DIGESTION,ABSORPTION AND
TRANSPORT
DIGESTION

 Is the breakdown of food to molecules that are small enough to be

absorbed into the circulation
 Mechanical Digestion: breaks large food particles into smaller ones
 Chemical digestion: involves the breaking of covalent chemical
bonds in organic molecules by digestive enzymes
ABSORPTION

 Begins in the stomach, where some small, lipid-soluble molecules,

such as alcohol and aspirin, can diffuse through the stomach
epithelium into the circulation
 Most absorption occurs in the duodenum and jejunum, although
some occurs in the ileum
 Some molecules can diffuse through the intestinal wall, whereas
others must be transported across the intestinal wall
TRANSPORT

 Requires carrier molecules and includes facilitated diffusion,

cotransport and active transport
 Cotransport and active transport require energy to move
transported molecules across the intestinal wall
CARBOHYDRATES (CHO)

 Polysaccharides: large CHO (starches, cellulose, glycogen) consist

of many sugars linked by chemical bonds
 Starch: energy –storage molecule in plants
 Cellulose: forms the walls of plant cells
 Glycogen: an energy-storage molecule in animals and is contained
in muscle and in the liver
 Salivary amylase begins the digestion of CHO in the mouth. CHO
then pass to the stomach, where digestion continues until food is
well mixed with acid which inactivates salivary amylase
 In the duodenum, pancreatic amylase continues the digestion of
CHO and absorption begins
 Amylases break down polysaccharides to disaccharides, enzymes
called DISACCHARIDASES bound to the microvilli of intestinal
epithelium break down the disaccharides to monosaccharides
(e.g of disaccharidases is lactase which breaks down lactose (milk
sugar) The lack of lactase causes lactose intolerance (signs include
cramping, bloating and diarrhea)
 Monosaccharides (single sugars) such as glucose, galactose, and
fructose are taken up through the intestinal epithelial cells
 Glucose transport is thru cotransport with Na+ ( energy available is
used to transport glucose across the cell membrane. Galactose is
transported in the same way while fructose is taken up by facilitated
diffusion.
 Once inside the intestinal epithelial cell, monosaccharides are
transported into the capillaries of the intestinal villi and are carried
by the hepatic portal system to the liver
 Liver cells convert different types of monosaccharides to glucose
which then leaves the liver via the circulation to be distributed
throughout the body
 Glucose enters the cells by facilitated diffusion
 The rate of glucose transport into most types of cells is greatly
influenced by INSULIN. Without insulin, glucose enters most cells very
slowly.
LIPIDS

 Include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids and fat-soluble vitamins

 THEY ARE INSOLUBLE or slightly soluble in water
 Triglycerides ( often referred to as fats) are the most common and
consist three fatty acids bound to glycerol. Fats are saturated if their
fatty acids have only single bonds between carbons and
unsaturated if they have one or more double bonds between
carbons
 Saturated fats ( found in meat, dairy products, eggs, nuts, coconut
oil and palm oil. Unsaturated fats ( found in fish and most oil plants
 Fats including cholesterol are not soluble in water and thus
transported in the blood as lipoproteins
 Cholesterol is found primarily in two types of lipoproteins (LDL and
HDL)
 Low- density lipoproteins (LDLs) carry cholesterol to the tissues for use
by the cells; considered “bad” cholesterol (it deposits cholesterol in
arterial wall which leads to atherosclerosis)
 High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) transport cholesterol from the tissues
to the liver for removal from the body; considered “ good”
cholesterol
 A high HDL/LDL ratio in the bloodstream is related to a lower risk of
heart disease
 Aerobic exercise is one way to elevate HDL and decrease LDL levels
Lipid digestion

 Emulsification: first step in lipid digestion; large lipid droplets are

transformed into much smaller droplets; emulsification is
accomplished by bile salts secreted by the liver
 Lipase secreted by pancreas, digests lipid molecules. The primary
products of this digestive process are fatty acids and
monoglycerides
 In the intestines, bile salts aggregate (pile up) around small droplets
of digested lipids to form micelles
 When a micelle comes in contact with epithelial cells of the small
intestine, lipids, fatty acids, and monoglyceride molecules pass (by
simple diffusion) from micelles through the cell membranes of the
epithelial cells
 Once inside intestinal epithelial cells, fatty acids and
monoglycerides are recombined to form triglycerides these and
with other lipids are packaged inside a protein coat
 Packaged lipoproteins are called chylomicrons which in turn leave
the epithelial cells and enter the lacteals (lymphatics)
 Lymph containing large amounts of absorbed lipid is called CHYLE
 Lymphatic system carries the chyle to the blood stream
 Chylomicrons are transported to the liver where lipids are stored.
 Lipids are also transported to adipose tissue, where they are stored
until an energy source is needed by the body
PROTEINS

 Are chain of amino acids

 Found in most of the plants and animals we eat
 Pepsin is an enzyme secreted by the stomach that breaks down
proteins, producing polypeptides
 Other proteins and polypeptide chains leave the stomach and
enter small intestine. Enzymes Trypsin, Chymotrypsin and
Carboxypeptidase, produced by the pancreas in their inactive
forms and activated in the intestine, continue the digestive process,
these enzymes produce small peptides which are further broken
down into TRIPEPTIDES (three amino acids), dipeptides (two amino
acids) or single amino acids by digestive enzymes called peptidases
(bound in the microvilli of small intestine)
 Absorption of tripeptides and dipeptides or individual amino acids
occurs through the intestinal epithelial cells by various cotransport
mechanisms.
 Within the intestinal epithelial cells, the tripeptides and dipeptides
are broken down into amino acids which then enters the blood
capillaries in the villi and are carried by the hepatic portal vein to
the liver, or released to the bloodstream and distributed throughout
the body. Amino acids are actively transported and stimulated by
growth hormone and insulin
 Most amino acids are used as building blocks to form new proteins
 Excess amino acids are partially broken down and used to
synthesize glycogen or lipids which can be stored, most of the
excess amino acids are converted to lipids
Water and minerals

 Approximately 9L of water enter the digestive tract each day.

 About 2 L of food and drink are ingested and the remaining
7L are digestive secretions
 Approx 92% of that water is absorbed in the small intestine,
about 7% is absorbed in the large intestine and about 1 %
leaves the body in the feces
 Water can move in either direction by osmosis across the wall
of digestive tract.
 When chyme is diluted, water moves out of the intestine into
the blood. If the chyme is concentrated and contains little
water, water moves into the lumen of the small instine
 Potassium,sodium, calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions a re
actively transported from the small intestine.Vitamin D is required for
the transport of calcium
 Negatively charged Chloride moves passively through the wall of
the duodenum and jejunum with the positively charged Na+, but
Cl_ is actively transported from the Ileum