Lect 1

Concepts of Cyber Security
By
Dr. Vivek Kapoor
1/21/2020 Dr. Vivek Kapoor 1

BACKGROUND
• In early days of serious computing (1950’s – 1960’s) there was not a great deal
of emphasis on security.
• The systems in those days were closed and computer network was completely
under the control of on organization.
• It was internet that changed the way computer communicate with each other.
• Due to this a number of new issues and concerns about security were being
raised.
• Many new threats and attack over information were discovered as computer
applications were developed to handle financial and personal data.
• As technologist found new ways to thwart these attacks, attackers found new
ways to beat them. This goes on and on.
• My lecture touches upon the conceptual aspects of these attacks that
professionals from other fields will like to know.

NEED FOR SECURITY
It is seen that inadequate or improper security mechanisms can bring the whole
business down. Two typical examples of such security mechanisms are:
• Provide user id and password.
• Encode the information.
• Example below shows that all your credit card details which travels over the
internet can be captured and misuse if we do not use proper security
mechanisms.

SECURITY APPROACHES
• Security Models
• No security.
• Security through obscurity.
• Host Security.
• Network Security.
• Security Management Practices
• Affordability.
• Functionality.
• Cultural issues.
• Legality.

SECURITY APPROACHES
• Points to be insured
• Explanation of policies to all.
• Outline responsibilities.
• Simple language.
• Accountability.
• Exception and periodic reviews.

Principles of Security
• Confidentiality. (Interception)
• Integrity. (Modification)
• Authentication. (Fabrication)
• Non Repudiation. (Denial of claim)
• Access control.
• Availability. (Interruption)

Principles of Security (Confidentiality)
• Only an authorized recipient should be able to extract the contents of the
message from its encrypted form. Otherwise, it should not be possible to obtain
any significant information about the message contents.

Principles of Security (Integrity)
• The recipient should be able to determine if the message has been altered during
transmission.
• Changes need to be prevented or detected.

Principles of Security (Authenticity)
• The recipient should be able to identify the sender, and verify that the purported
sender actually did send the message.
• Trust between communicating parties is established.

Principles of Security (Non Repudiation)
• The sender should not be able to deny sending the message.
• Access control determines who should be able to access what. For example user
A can view the records, but cannot update and so on.
• Availability
• Resources/applications must be available to authentic users all the time.
• Attackers can deny the availability.
• Denial Of Service (DOS) is an example of an attack on availability.

Types of Attacks
• Passive attacks do not involve any modifications to the contents of an orignal
message.
• In active attacks contents of the original message is modified any way.

Active Attacks

Practical Side of Attacks

Application Level Attacks (Virus)
• Program that causes damage to other programs/applications/data
• Contains malicious code
• Propagates as it damages

• No matter how careful you might be, chances are, at one time or another, you
will find your computer infected with a virus.
• Common computer viruses that are currently going around are:
1. Encrypted Viruses – The encrypted virus is probably the most difficult kind of
bug to detect and the most difficult to stop. You may accidentally have
downloaded one of these bugs and before you know it, your entire computer
can be infected. When the bug wants to run wild, it decrypts itself. In most
cases, your virus protection can then identify it and stop it.
2. Secret Viruses – These types of viruses will make changes to files on your
computer, or completely replace files, but then try to trick your computer and
your anti virus program into thinking that the originals are being used.
3. Time Delay Viruses – These types of viruses take a much slower, more
disciplined path towards ruining your computer. Instead of instantly trying to
take over your computer the moment you download them, they will wait and
slowly infect files bit by bit.

4. The Anti-Virus Virus – Believe it or not, there are viruses out there that do
nothing more than attack your pre-installed anti virus program in hopes of
disabling it so other viruses can then be downloaded. This is why many people
have a virus protection program as well as a separate anti-spyware or anti-
malware program on their computer.
5. The Multi-Headed Virus – This is one of the most nefarious bugs on the whole
Internet. Not only are there parts of this virus that will attach themselves to .exe
files on your computer, but it will also affect your computer’s start up so that
you begin running the virus every time you turn your computer on
automatically.
6. The Misdirection Virus – This type of virus is downright scary. It has a built in
subprogram that is made to give false readings to your virus protection
software. You think you have a bug in one directory, when, in fact, the virus is
busy harming your computer in a whole other area.

7. A Cloning Virus – The cloning virus is an old fashioned type of bug. When
you download it, it will quickly create duplicates for .exe files you have on
your computer, hoping that you’ll click on it when you really mean to click on
a healthy program you already have.
8. The Author Virus – When you download a virus, it usually attaches itself to a
program and then runs when you run that program. The Author Virus, on the
other hand, finds an .exe file and actually deletes and rewrites code so that the
program is changed. Few common computer viruses run this way since the
level of virus needs to be so sophisticated.
9. The Bad Penny Virus – The very first computer virus to ever hit the Internet
was a Bad Penny virus. This is a bug that automatically passes itself on to
everyone on a network or on the Internet unless something stops it. This was
the whole reason why firewalls were invented.

11. Rewriting Virus – This bug made a habit out of rewriting some of your most
needed files, as well as filling up your hard drive with all sorts of invisible files
you couldn’t normally see.
12. The Melissa Virus – This was a bug that hit everyone, both PC users and Mac
users. It would automatically email itself to other people without permission. It
can be extra harmful if you use a private mail server at your place of
employment. The Melissa virus has gone down in history as one of the most
common computer viruses of all time.

Application Level Attacks (Worms)
• Propagates as it damages
• Does not damage a program/data
• Consumes resources, and brings system to a halt

Application Level Attacks (Trojan Horse)
• Silently observes user actions and captures confidential information
• Uses captured information for its use
• Example: Capturing user id and password

Application Level Attacks (Applets/ActiveX
Control)
• Small programs that get downloaded along with an HTML page to the client
• Executes on the client browser
• Makes Web pages active

Application Level Attacks (Cookie)
• HTTP protocol is stateless
• For client to remember its state, some mechanism is needed
• Cookie allows client to remember its state

Application Level Attacks (Cookie)

Top 5 Computer Viruses
• Stuxnet (2009-2010) It was the first computer virus designed specifically to
cause damage in the real, as opposed to virtual, world. Stuxnet was unique in
that it targeted software that controls industrial systems. Specifically, Stuxnet
was designed to damage machinery at Iran’s uranium enrichment facility in
Natanz. Based on the available information, including data from the
International Atomic Energy Agency, experts believe Stuxnet caused a large
number of Iran’s centrifuges—essentially giant washing machines used to
enrich uranium—to spin out of control and self-destruct. Though Stuxnet was
discovered in 2010, it is believed to have first infected computers in Iran in
2009.
• agent.btz (2008) This piece of malware’s claim to fame is that it temporarily
forced the Pentagon to issue a blanket ban on thumb drives and even
contributed to the creation of an entirely new military department, U.S. Cyber
Command. Agent.btz spreads through infected thumb drives, installing malware
that steals data. When agent.btz was found on Pentagon computers in 2008,
officials suspected the work of foreign spies.

Top 5 Computer Viruses
• Conficker Virus (2009)In 2009, a new computer worm crawled its way into
millions of Windows-based PCs around the world, creating a massive botnet
army of remotely controlled computers capable of stealing financial data and
other information.
• Zeus (2007) There is no shortage of malware kits that target personal
information, but Zeus has become the go-to tool for many of today’s cyber
criminals and is readily available for sale in the cyber crime underworld.
• PoisonIvy (2005) PoisonIvy is a computer security nightmare; it allows the
attacker to secretly control the infected user’s computer. Malware like
PoisonIvy is known as a “remote access trojan,” because it provides full control
to the perpetrator through a backdoor. Once the virus is installed, the perpetrator
can activate the controls of the targeted computer to record or manipulate its
content or even use the computer’s speaker and webcam to record audio and
video.

Specific Attacks
• Packet Sniffing
• Packet Spoofing: (i) Attacker can intercept the reply. (ii) Denial of Service
Attack. (iii) Attacker does not want the reply.
• Domain Name Server (DNS) Spoofing.

Information Security Objectives

Thank You

Information Security Concepts
By
Vivek Kapoor

Information Security
• Cryptography (from Greek kryptós, "hidden", and gráphein, "to write") is,
traditionally, the study of means of converting information from its normal,
comprehensible form into an incomprehensible format, rendering it unreadable
without secret knowledge — the art of encryption.
• Past: Cryptography helped ensure secrecy in important communications, such
as those of spies, military leaders, and diplomats.
• In recent decades, cryptography has expanded its remit in two ways
• mechanisms for more than just keeping secrets: schemes like digital signatures
and digital cash, for example.
• It is widespread use by many civilians, and users are not aware of it.
• The study of how to circumvent the use of cryptography is called cryptanalysis,
or codebreaking.

Key words
• Plain Text. (The original intelligible message)
• Cipher text. (The transformed message)
• Algorithm. (An algorithm for encryption and decryption. The exact operation of
ciphers is normally controlled by a key — some secret piece of information that
customizes how the ciphertext is produced)
• Encryption.
• Decryption.
• Key. 9Some critical information used by the cipher, known only to the sender
and/or receiver)
• Brute force attack. (brute force attack is a method of defeating a cryptographic
scheme by trying a large or all possible number of possibilities)
• Cryptanalyst. (code breaking or cracking the code)

Classical Cryptographic Techniques
• Substitution Techniques. (Characters of plain text are replaced by another
characters)
• Transposition Techniques. (Perform permutation over plain text characters)
• Product Cipher (Both Approaches).

Substitution Techniques
• Caeser Cipher.
• Modified version of Ceaser cipher.
• Monoalphabetic cipher.
• Homophonic cipher.
• Polygram substitution cipher.
• Polyalphabatic substitution cipher.

Caeser Cipher
• Caesar cipher using a left rotation of three places (the shift parameter, here 3, is
used as the key)
• Plain: ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
• Cipher: DEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZABC
• The encryption can also be represented using modular arithmetic by first
transforming the letters into numbers, according to the scheme, A = 0, B = 1,..., Z
= 25.Encryption of a letter x by a shift n can be described mathematically as,
• E_n(x) = (x + n) \mod {26}.
• Decryption is performed similarly
• D_n(x) = (x - n) \mod {26}

Modified version of Ceaser cipher.
• As English language has 26 alphabets hence key could from 1 to 26 i.e 25 possibilities of
replacement.
• The first reason why this strategy fail is that there are only very few keys
• One way to defeat this strategy is to vastly increase the number of available keys.
• The second reason why the exhaustive strategy works is that English is highly
recognizable.

Modified version of Ceaser cipher.
• As English language has 26 alphabets hence key could from 1 to 26 i.e 25 possibilities of
replacement.
• The first reason why this strategy fail is that there are only very few keys
• One way to defeat this strategy is to vastly increase the number of available keys.
• The second reason why the exhaustive strategy works is that English is highly
recognizable.

Monoalphabetic Cipher
• Instead of using a shifted alphabet, allow the use of any shuffle of the alphabet.
• For encryption, look up letter in top line, write down equivalent from bottom line.
• ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
• UFKCOQRGMYTHZEJBILDVPSWANX
• For decryption, look up letter in bottom line, write down equivalent from top line.
• XPDSNBHLQOCRIYEUFGVKATWZJM
• ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
• The only difference is that the encryption key has the columns sorted in order of their
plaintext letter, but the decryption key has them in order of their cryptotext letter.
• A general monoalphabetic cipher clearly has a large number of possible keys.
• Exactly how many possibilities are there?
• We could put any of 26 letters in first position
• Any of 25 remaining letters in position two.And so on . . .
• There are 26×25×· · ·×1 = 403, 291, 461, 126, 605, 635, 584, 000, 000 possibilities

Monoalphabetic cipher
• It would take trillions of years to blindly explore all these possibilities.
• Yet breaking a monoalphabetic cipher is childs play.
• How can this be?
• Obviously, the answer does not involve blind search.

Monoalphabetic Cipher
 As we know that some alphabets in English language occur more frequently than
others.
 Language analyst will found probability of occurrence each letter in the text.

Homophonic Substitution
• Plaintext letters map to more than one ciphertext symbol.
• Frequency distribution is flattened, making analysis more difficult.
• A = DBHK
• B = KLPS etc……..

Polygram Substitution Cipher
• Here blocks of plain text alphabets are replaced by block of cipher text
alphabets.
• HELLO = YUQQW
• HELL = TEUI

Polyalphabetic Substitution
• Multiple one character keys.
• Each key encrypt one plain text character.
• 1st key encrypts 1st plain text 2nd key encrypts 2nd plain text and so on…..
• After all the keys are used they are recycled.
• Hence number of keys used are called the period of cipher.

Transposition Techniques
• Rail Fence Technique.
• Simple Columnar Transposition Technique.
• Simple Columnar Transposition Technique with multiple rounds.
• Vernam Cipher (one – Time Pad).
• Book Cipher/Running Key Cipher.
• Playfair Cipher.
• Hill Cipher.

Rail Fence Cipher
• Writing plain text as a sequence of diagonals and then reading it row by row to
produce cipher text.
• For example, using three "rails" and a message of 'WE ARE DISCOVERED.
FLEE AT ONCE', the cipherer writes out:
• W . . . E . . . .C . . . . R . . . .L . . . . T . . . . .
• .E . R . D . S . O . E . E . F . E . A . O . C . .
• . A . . . I . . . . .V . . . . D . . . E . . . . N . .
• Cipher text:
• WECRL TEERD SOEEF EAOCA IVDEN

Simple Columnar Transposition
Technique
• The message is written out in rows of a fixed length, and then read out
again column by column.
• Columns are chosen in some scrambled order.
• Message WE ARE DISCOVERED. FLEE AT ONCE. In a regular
columnar transposition, we write this into the grid as:
• 6 3 24 1 5
• WE AR E D
• I S COV E
• RE D F L E
• EA TO N C
• EQ KJ E U

Technique
• For example, the word ZEBRAS is of length 6 (so the rows are of length 6), and
the permutation is defined by the alphabetical order of the letters in the
keyword. In this case, the order would be "6 3 2 4 1 5".
• Providing five nulls (QKJEU) at the end. The cipher text is then read off
as:EVLNE ACDTK ESEAQ ROFOJ DEECU WIREE .

Technique with Multiple Rounds
• Basic procedure is to use simple columnar transposition technique , but do it
more than once.
• Simple columnar transposition technique with multiple rounds is much more
complex.

Vernam Cipher (One – Time Pad).
• It is implemented using a random set of non-repeating characters as the input
cipher text.
• Length of input cipher text is equal to the length of the original plain text and it
is used only one time.
• It is used short messages.

Vernam Cipher (One – Time Pad)
• Message: HOW ARE YOU
• Cipher text message is: UQXTUYFR
• Plain Text H O W A R E Y O U
• 7 14 22 0 17 4 24 14 20
• One Time pad N C B T Z Q A R X
• 13 2 1 19 25 16 0 17 23
• Total 20 16 23 19 42 20 24 31 43
• Subtract 26, 20 16 23 19 16 20 24 5 17
• if >25
• Cipher text U Q X T Q U Y F R

Playfair Cipher
• The Playfair cipher uses a 5 by 5 table containing a key word or phrase.
• To generate the key table, one would first fill in the spaces in the table with the
letters of the keyword (dropping duplicate letters), then fill the remaining spaces
with the rest of the letters of the alphabet in order (put both "I" and "J" in the same
space).
• The key can be written in the top rows of the table, from left to right.
• To encrypt a message, one would break the message into digraphs (groups of 2
letters).

Playfair Cipher
• To encrypt a message, one would break the message into digraphs (groups of 2
letters).
• Then apply the following 4 rules, in order, to each pair of letters in the plaintext:
1. If both letters are the same (or only one letter is left), add an "X" after the first
letter. Encrypt the new pair and continue. Some variants of Playfair use "Q" instead
of "X", but any uncommon monograph will do.
2. If the letters appear on the same row of your table, replace them with the letters to
their immediate right respectively (wrapping around to the left side of the row if a
letter in the original pair was on the right side of the row).
3. If the letters appear on the same column of your table, replace them with the letters
immediately below respectively (wrapping around to the top side of the column if a
letter in the original pair was on the bottom side of the column).
4. If the letters are not on the same row or column, replace them with the letters on the
same row respectively but at the other pair of corners of the rectangle defined by
the original pair. The order is important – the first encrypted letter of the pair is the
one that lies on the same row as the first plaintext letter.

Playfair Cipher
3. If the letters appear on the same column of your table, replace them with the
letters immediately below respectively (wrapping around to the top side of the
column if a letter in the original pair was on the bottom side of the column).
4. If the letters are not on the same row or column, replace them with the letters on
the same row respectively but at the other pair of corners of the rectangle defined
by the original pair. The order is important – the first encrypted letter of the pair is
the one that lies on the same row as the first plaintext letter.

Playfair Cipher
• Using "playfair example" as the key, the table becomes
• PL A Y F
• I R E X M
• BC DG H
• J K NO S
• TU V WZ
• Encrypting the message "Hide the gold in the tree stump":
• HI DE TH EG OL DI NT HE TR EX ES TU MP
• Thus the message "Hide the gold in the tree stump" becomes
"BMNDZBXDKYBEJVDMUIXMMNUVIF".
• Advantages
• Identification of individual diagrams is difficult.
• Frequency analysis difficult.

Enigma Machine

Symmetric Key Cryptography
• Problem of key distribution/agreement/exchange.
• Large number of keys required for communication between different parties.
• If no. of parties are n then we required n*(n-1)/2 keys. i.e for 2 parties key
required is 1
• for 3 parties key required is 3
• for 4 parties key required is 6
• for 5 parties key required is 10 and so on…………

Asymmetric Key Operation
• Public-key cryptography, also known as asymmetric cryptography, is a form of
cryptography in which the key used to encrypt a message differs from the key
used to decrypt it.
• In public key cryptography, a user has a pair of cryptographic keys—a public key
and a private key.
• The private key is kept secret, while the public key may be widely distributed.
• Incoming messages would have been encrypted with the recipient's public key and
can only be decrypted with his corresponding private key.
• The keys are related mathematically, but the private key cannot be practically
derived from the public key.

Key Range and Key Size
• A two bit binary no. has four states 00, 01, 10, 11.
• A three bit binary no. has eight states 000, 001, 010, 100, 011, 101, 110, 111.
• As no. of bit increases by one no. the no. of binary states increases by double.
• Thus as the key size increases the no. of binary states increases and so is the no.
of key range and efforts required to break the key.

Types of Attacks
• Cipher text Only : The attacker has only the cipher text, which he may want to
decode, or he may want to determine the key that was used
• Known Plaintext : The attacker has a plaintext and its corresponding cipher text.
The goal of this attack is purely to determine the key.
• Chosen Plaintext : The attacker gets to choose a plaintext and can obtain the
corresponding cipher text. The goal is to determine the key. If the attacker has the
opportunity to iteratively try different plaintexts, then he can choose each plain
text, based on information that he received from the previous iteration. This is
often referred to as an Adaptive Chosen Plaintext attack
• Chosen Ciphertext : The attacker chooses a cipher text and can obtain it's
corresponding plaintext. An attacker may also use an adaptive version of this
attack, as with Chosen Plaintext
• Chosen Text : An attacker can choose both the cipher text and the plaintext, and
can get the corresponding texts to both.

Computer-based Symmetric Key
Cryptographic Algorithms
• Popular algorithms that are discussed are:
• DES (Data Encryption Standard),
• IDEA (International Data Encryption Algorithm),
• RC5,
• Blowfish.

Computer Based Asymmetric Key
Cryptography
• Brief History : Diffie & Hellman first gave the concept of Public key
cryptography in 1970.
• James Ellis of Britain also purposed the idea of asymmetric key cryptography.
• In 1977 Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir, Len Adleman developed first major asymmetric
key algorithm. It was called RSA algorithm.
• Here there are two keys, one for encryption & other for decryption.

Asymmetric Key Cryptography


RSA Algorithm
• Prime numbers are the basis of RSA algorithm.
• It is based on the fact that it is easy to find & multiply prime no.s together but
extremely difficult to factor their product.
• Public & private keys in RSA are based on very large no.s made up of 100 or
more digits.

RSA Algorithm

RSA Algorithm

RSA Algorithm

RSA Algorithm

RSA Algorithm
• Suppose B wants to receive a confidential message from A, B must generate a
private key (d), a public key (e) by using earlier mechanism.
• B must give public key (e) & no. n to A. Using e & n, A encrypts the message &
then sends the encrypted message to B.
• B uses his private key (d) to decrypt the message.
• The question is if B can calculate & generate d, anyone else can also, but it is
not simple.

RSA Algorithm
• An attacker knows public key e i.e 5 & number n i.e 119 could find private key
d i.e 77 by trial & error.
• The attacker first find the value of p & q by trial & erro.
• The factoring of n into p & q is not easy. It is time consuming & complex.
• Since it cannot find p & q, he cannot proceed further to find out d, because d
depends on p, q & e.
• Mathe matical research suggest that it would take more than 70 years to find p
& q if n is a 100-digit number.
• It was fond that RSA is 1000 times slower than DES.

RSA Algorithm

RSA Algorithm

• Here two keys are used.
• Its is slower than symmetric key cryptography.
• Size of encrypted text is moe than orignal size.
• Number of keys required is same as the no. of participants.
• Can be used for encryption & decryption & digital signatures.

The Best of Both Worlds
• The solution must be completely secure.
• The encryption & decryption process must not take long time.
• The generated cipher text should be of compact size.
• The key distribution problem must be solved by the solution.
• It can be done by combining both symmetric & asymmetric key cryptography.

Digital Envolope
 A’s computer encrypts orignal plain text message PT with the help of symmetric
key cryptography & key K1 & gets cipher text CT.
Symmetric Key
K1
Plain text PT Cipher text CT
ENCRYPTION

Digital Envolope
• A now takes one time symmetric key K1 & encrypts it with B’s public key K2.
This process is called key wrapping.
B’s public key K2
Symmetric key Encrypted

K1 symmetric key K1

Digital Envolope
• Now A puts both cipher text CT & encrypted symmetric key together inside a
digital envolope.
Encrypted
Cipher text CT + symmetric key K1
Digital envolope
Digital Envolope
• A now sends the digital envolope to B using network.
• B recives the envolope & get two things cipher text CT & one time encrypted
symmetric key K2.
• B now uses his private key K3 to decrypt symmetric key K1 which was
encrypted using B’s public key K2.
B’s private key K3
Encrypted
symmetric key K1 Symmetric key K1

Digital Envolope
• Finally B apply same symmetric key K1 to cipher text CT to get plain text.
Symmetric Key K1
Cipher text CT Plain text PT

Digital Envelope
• Here fast encryption is achieved, since plain text PT is encrypted using
symmetric key algorithm key K1.
• Encryption of symmetric key algorithm key K1 by B’s public key is also fast,
since key size is generally small (56 or 64 bits).
• Problem of key exchange is solved.

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures

Digital Signatures
• Most countries have already made provisions for recognizing a digital signature
as a valid document.just as paper based signatures.
• It has legal status now.

Message Digests
• In case of digital signatures it does not solve our problem of slow encryption,
since whole plain text is is encrypted with senders private key.
• In real case more efficient scheme is used i.e message digest.
• A message digest is a finger print or summary of message.
• It is similar to the concept of Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC) or Cyclic
Rdundancy Check (CRC).
• It is used to verify integrity of data i.e massage has not been tampered with after
it leaves the sender.

Public Key Infrastructure (PKI)

• PKI is closely related to the ideas of asymmetric key cryptography, mainly
including message digests, digital signatures and encryption services.( as
discussed previously)
• They are known as passports of web.
• Here we will discuss role of certification authorities (CA) , registration
authorities (RA) , how one CA is related to another, root CA, self signed
certificates & cross certification, validating digital certificates, special protocols
such as CRL, OCSP, SCVP , Popular standard such as PKIX and PKCS for
digital certificates and PKI.

• We have discussed the problem of key exchange (Diffie Hellman key exchange)
which can easily lead to man in the middle attack.
• Thus there is a problem for key exchange in public key cryptography also,
because openly exchange of keys can lead to man in middle attack.
• This problem was solved with an idea of digital certificates.
• Digital certificate is a document such as our passport or driving license.
• Digital certificate is a computer file such as vivek.cer, but in actual practice the
file extensions can be different.
• Such as my passport certifies between me and my character tics, hence digital
certificate certifies between me and my public key.
• Since passport is certified by a trusted agency such as government, hence digital
certificate is certified by a trusted agengy called certification Authority (CA).

Conceptual view of my digital certificate
Fig.
Digital Certificate
Subject Name: Vivek Kapoor
Public Key: <#^&89>
Serial No.: 103467
Other Data: email-vkapoor13@yahoo.com
Valid from: 1 Jan 2001
Valid to: 31 Dec 2004
Issuer Name: VeriSign
…
….
Certification Authority (CA)
• It is a trusted agency that issue a digital certificate.
• Who can be a CA? It is someone to whom everybody trusts i.e government,
reputed organization such as post office, software company etc….
• Two of famous CA’s are VeriSign and Entrust Safescrypt Limited, a subsidiary
of Satyam Infoway Ltd. (first Indian CA in 2002).
• Thus Ca has an authority to issue digital certificates to individuals who want to
use digital certificates in asymmetric key cryptographic applications.
• A standard called as X.509 defines the structure of a digital certificate. It was a
part of another standard called as X.500 which was revised twice.
• The current version of standard is V3.

Contents of Digital Certificate
Fig. Version Version 1
Certificate Serial No.
Issuer Name Version 2
Validity ( Not Before/Not after)
Subject public key info. Version 3
Issuer Unique identifier
Subject unique identifier
Extensions
Certification Authority Digital Signature All Versions

Description of the Various fields in a
X.509 Digital Certificate Version 1/2
• Version: Identifies a particular version 1,2 3.
• Certificate serial No.: Unique serial no. generated by CA.
• Signature Algorithm Identifier: Algorithm used by CA to sign the certificate.
• Issuer Name: Distinguished Name of CA that created and signed the certificate.
• Validity (Not Before/Not after): Two date time values.
• Subject Name: Person to whom certificate is issued.
• Subject public key Information: Subject’s public key and algorithms related to that
key.
• Issuer Unique identifier: Identify a CA uniquely if two or more CA’s has used same
issuer no.
• Subject Unique Identifier: Identify a subject uniquely if two or more subject’s has
used same issuer no.

Description of the Various Fields in a
X.509 Digital Certificate Version 3
• Authority key identifier: Which pair of key is used to sign this certificate.
• Subject key identifier: Subject pair of key.
• Key usage: Scope of operation of public key.
• Extended Key usage: Protocols this certificate can interoperate.
• Private key usage period: Period limits for the private & public keys
corresponding to this certificate.
• Certificate policies:
• Policy Mappings: Used only when subject of a given certificate is also a CA.
• Subject alternative name: Alternatives name for the subject.
• Issuer alternative name: Alternatives name for the issuer.
• Subject Directory Attributes: Additional information about the subject.
• Basic constraints: Indicates weather subject in the CA may act as CA.

Registration Authority (RA)
• CA can delegate some of its task to some third party called Registration Authority
(RA).
• Registration authority is between end user and Certification authority (CA).
• RA provider following basic services:
1) Accepting & verifying registration info. About new users.
2) Generating keys on behalf of end users.
3) Accepting & authorizing requests keys backups and recovery.
4) Accepting & authorizing requests for certificate revocation.
• Due to RA CA becomes an isolated identity, which makes it less susceptible to
security level attacks.
• So communication between RA & CA is highly protected.
• RA is mainly set up for facilitating the interaction between end user and the CA.
• Issuing, revocation, management of certificates is done by CA.

Certificate Creation Steps
• Fig.
Key Generation
Registration
Verification
Certificate Creation

Certificate Creation Steps (Step 1)
• There are two approaches for this purpose:
• Subject can create private and public key pair using some
software, usually this software is a part of web browser.
• Subject keep the private key secret and then sends public key
along with other information & evidences to the RA.
• Alternatively RA can generate a key pair on the user’s or
subject behalf. This happens when subject does not know the
technicalities involved in key generation.
• Major disadvantages in this approach is that RA comes to
know about user private key.

• This step is required when user generates key in the first step.
• Here subject sends public key along with other information & evidences to the
RA.
• For this software provides wizard in which all users enters the data and submits
it. It is called certificate signing request.
• This is one of the public key cryptographic standards which we will study latter.

• Verification is done in two respects as follows:
• RA verifies user’s credentials.
• The second check is to ensure that user should have private key
corresponding to the public key i.e is send as a part of certificate request.
This check is called proof of possession.
• Approaches for proof of possession are:
• RA can demand that user must send digitally signed certificate signing
request (CSR) using his private key.
• RA can create a random no. challenge encrypt it with user’s public key
and send it to user. If user successfully decrypt it then it is assumed that
user contains private key.
• RA sends the digital certificate to the user encrypted by the user public
key. User will decrypt it using its private key & thus obtains the
certificate.

• Assuming that all the previous steps are successful, RA passes on all details to
the CA.
• CA then creates the certificate. There are programs to create the certificate in
X.509 format.
• CA sends the certificate to the user and retains a copy of it. CA’s copy is
maintained in certificates directory. Contents of the directory is similar to those
of telephone directory.
• The directory clients can request for and access information from central
repository using Lightweight Directory Access Protocol (LDAP).
• Digital certificate is in unreadable format. An application program actually
intercepts the certificate
• We can invoke internet explorer browser to view the certificate.

Why we should trust digital certificate?
• Why we trust a passport? Because it is stamped & signed by an authority.
• We cannot trust digital certificate because it contains some information about
user and its public key.
• After all digital certificate is a computer file.
• Therefore I can create a digital certificate file with whatever public key I want
to use.

How does a CA sign a certificate?
• Suppose we want to verify the digital certificate.
• We will note that last field in a digital certificate is always the digital signature
of the CA.
• So a digital certificate contains not only user information but also the digital
signature, like a passport is always signed by the authority.

Creation of the CA signature on a
certificate.
Fig. Version A message digest of all but
Certificate Serial No. the last fields of the digital
certificate is created.
Issuer Name
Subject public key info. Message Digest algorithm
Issuer Unique identifier
Extensions
Certification Authority Digital Signature
Certificates authority Encrypt

Message Digest
private key
This digital signature is stored

as the last field of the digital Digital Signature
certificate

How can we verify a digital certificate?
A message digest of all but
Version the last fields of the digital
Certificate Serial No. certificate is created.
Issuer Name
Subject public key info.
Issuer Unique identifier Message digest algorithm
Extensions
Certification Authority Digital Signature
Message Digest (MD1)
Digital Signature CA’s public Is MD1

key =MD2?
Yes No
Message Digest (MD2)
1/21/2020 Dr. Vivek Kapoor Valid 110
Invalid
Accept it Reject it
Certificate Hierarchies & Self-Signed
Certificates
• Suppose Alice received Bob’s certificate & she wants to verify it. For Alice
wants to design the bob’s certificate using Bob’s CA public key.
• How will Alice know Bob’s CA public key?
• If their CA’s are same then there is no problem ? But if they are different then
the problem arises.
• To resolve this type of problem Certification Authority Hierarchy is created.
This is also called Chain of Trust. In other terms CA’s are grouped into multiple
level of CA hierarchy.
• CA hierarchy begins with the root CA.
• The root CA has one or more 2nd level CA, which in turn have one or more third
level CA’s and so on.
• This type of hierarchy relieves the root CA from having to mange all the
possible digital certificates.

Certificates
• For example one second level CA could be responsible for the western region,
other for the eastern region and so on…
• Each of the 2nd level CA can appoint 3rd level CA and so on…
Root CA
2nd Level CA 2nd Level CA 2nd Level CA
3rd Level CA 3rd Level CA 3rd Level CA 3rd Level CA

….
… …
Certificates
• For example one second level CA could be responsible for the western region,
other for the eastern region and so on…
• Each of the 2nd level CA can appoint 3rd level CA and so on…
Root CA
2nd Level CA A1 2nd Level CA A2 2nd Level CA A3
3rd Level CA B1 3rd Level CA B2 3rd Level CA B10 3rd Level CA B11
….
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… Bob 113
…
Certificates
• If Alice has obtained her certificate from a third level CA & Bob has
obtained his certificate from other third level CA, How can Alice verify
Bob’s certificate?
• Clearly Bob in addition to his own certificate Bob will send certificate of
his CA (i.e B11) to Alice. This would tell Alice the public key of B11.
• Using the public key of B11, Alice can design and verify Bob’s certificate.
• Now question arises how will Alice will trust B11 certificate.
• For this Alice will required A3 certificate since B11 certificate has
obtained certificate from A3 and this will go so on until it reaches the root
certificate.
• The root CA’s are considered to be trusted CA’s, for this Alice web
browser contains pre programmed, hard coded certificate of the root
certificate
• Root certificate is self signed certificate i.e root signs its owns certificate
Certificates
• But in actual sequence of operations Bob will send all certificates up to the root
CA in the first message to Alice. This is called Push Model.
• Alice will verify all the certificates. This is called Pull Model.

Cross Certification
• It is possible that Alice & Bob live in different countries i.e their root CA’s will
be different.
• In fact, in one country can have multiple root CA’s.
• Root CA’s in US are VeriSign, Thawte & US postal service.
• This could lead us to the same old story of a never ending chain of certification
authority hierarchy and their validations.
• Alternative to this problem is cross-certification.
• Because single monolithic CA certifying every possible user in the world is
quiet unlikely. This is a concept of decentralization. Of CA’s for different
countries.
• It helps CA’s not only to work with smaller population but also work
independently.

Cross Certification
• Fig. Root CA of Root CA of USA
INDIA
2nd level CA 2nd level CA

(A1) (P1)
3rd level CA (B1) 3rd level CA 3rd level CA 3rd level CA

(B2) (Q1) (Q2)
Alice
…. …. Bob

Certificate Revocation
• Some of the common reason for the revocation of the certificates:
• The holder of certificate reports that his private key is compromised.
• The CA realizes that it had made some mistake while issuing the certificate.
• The certificate holder leaves the job, and the certificate was issued specifically
while the person was in job.
• For this CA must came to know about certification revocation request.
• CA must authenticate the certificate revocation requester before accepting the
revocation request, other someone will misuse it.
• There are two mechanisms for Certificate revocation status mechanisms offline
and online.

Certificate Revocation
• Fig. Digital Certification
revocation Checks
Offline revocation status Online revocation

checks status checks
Certification revocation Online certification Online certification

List (CRL) validation protocol (OCSP) validation protocol (OCSP)

Offline Certificate Revocation Status
Checks
• The Certification revocation List (CRL) is the primary means of checking the
status of digital certificate offline.
• CRL is a list of certificates published regularly by each CA.
• It list only those certificates whose validity is not over, but they are revoked due
to some reason.
• A CRL grows over a period of time.
• Thus if X wants to verify Y’s certificate, he has to do the following in sequence:
# Certificate expiry check
# Signature check
# Certificate revocation check.

Checks
• Fig.
CA: XYZ
Certification revocation List (CRL)
This CRL: 1 Jan 2002, 10.00AM
Next CRL: 12 Jan 2002, 10.00AM
Serial No. Date Reason

1234567 30-Dec-01 Pvt. Key Compromised
2356115 30-Dec-01 Changed job
…. …. ….

Checks
• Initially CA can send a one-time full up-to-date CRL to the users. This is called
base CRL.
• However next time he will not send the full CRL but the changes (called delta)
to the CRL since last update.
• This mechanism makes transportation of CRL file easier & reduces network
transmission overheads.
• Delta CRL file contains an indicator called as delta CRL indicator which
informs user that this file is not complete.
• It also contains a sequence no., which allows user to check all delta CRL’s.
• CRL is a offline certification revocation status check because they are issued
periodically.
• This latency is a major drawback of CRL approach.

Format of a CRL
• Fig.
Version Header
Fields
Signature Algorithm identifier
This update (Date and Time)
Next update (Date and Time)
User Certification Sr. No. Revocation Date CRL Entry Ext. Repeating
……… …………. …………… entries
……… ………… …………..
CRL Ext. Trailer
fields
Signature

Offline Certificate Status Protocol
(OCSP)
• It is used to check the validity of a digital certificate at a particular moment.
• It has following steps:
• CA provides a server called as an OCSP responder. Client sends OSCP request
to find the validity of a certificate.
• The OSCP responder consults X.5000 directory to see particular certificate is
valid or not.
• Based on results from X.500 directory, OSCP responder sends back digitally
signed response to the client.
• OSCP does not check validity of chain of certificates associated with current
certificate.

Simple Certification Validation Protocol
(SCVP)
• It was designed to deal with the drawbacks of OSCP.
• Difference between OSCP & SCVP:
OSCP SCVP
Client request: Sends certificate Sr. No. Sends entire certificate
Chain of request: Given certificate is checked Intermediate certificate is
checked
Checks: Certification revocation Additional checks( full chain of
trust etc)
Returned Info. Status of certificate Additional Info. ( Proof of
revocation status,
chain of certification validation)
Additional features None Certificate can be checked for a
backdated event

Certificate Types
• Not all digital certificates have same status and cost. Depending on
requirements they differ.
• Certificate types can be classified as follows:
# Email certificates: It includes the user’s email id. It is used to verify that signer of
an email message has an email id i.e is same as it appears in user’s certificate.
# Server-side SSL certificates: These are for merchants who allow buyers to
purchase goods from their online website. They are issued after careful scrutiny
of merchant credentials.
# Client-side SSL certificates: It allow merchant to verify client.
# Code-signing certificates: These are used to sign java applets code or Microsoft
active X codes which are embedded over the web page.

Roaming Certificates
• There is a problem of portability.
• Smart cards is one technology for making it possible. But it needs smart card
readers everywhere.
• A better solution is Roaming certificates. It works as follows:
• The user digital certificates & private keys along with user id’s & passwords are
stored in central secure server called credential server.
• User can log into any computer & authenticates himself using id & password to the
credential server.
• The credential server verifies the user id & password, using credential database. If
the user is successfully authenticated, the credential server sends the digital
certificate and private key file to the user.

Attribute Certificates
• They are used to established relation between an entity and a set of attributes
related to the entity.
• Attribute certificates can be used in authorization services that control access to
networks, databases etc… as well as physical access to buildings.

Protecting Private Keys
• Private key of user should be kept secret. Mechanisms for protecting private keys
are:
1) Password protection: Pvt. Key is stored in the hard disk of the user’s computer as
a disk file. The file can only be accessed with the help of password. Any one can
guess the password.
2) PCMCIA cards: They are chip cards. Pvt. key is stored in it. It reduces the
chances of being stolen. But for encryption pvt. Must travel from chip to
computer hard disk memory from where it can be stolen.
3) Tokens: Token stores pvt. Key in encrypted form. To decrypt it the user needs one
time password.
4) Biometrics: The pvt. Key is associated with unique charactertics of the
individual( Finger print, retina scan etc…)
5) Smart cards: Smart card contains a computer chip, which can perform signing &
encryption. Benefit of this scheme is that pvt. Key never leaves the card.
Disadvantages are tht user has to carry smart card with itself & there should be
compatible smart card readers available
Multiple Key Pairs & Key Update
• It is recommended that user must possess multiple key pairs.
• One key pair should be for certificate signing, other should be for encryption.
• Following guidelines are helpful:
1) Pvt. Key used for signing (Non repudiation) must not be backed up after it has
archived, because there is a chance that other can misuse it.
2) Pvt. key used for encryption must be backed up because encrypted
information can be recovered even at the later date.
• Good security practices demand that key pairs should be updated regularly
because over a period of time they become susceptible to cryptanalysis
attacks.

Key Archival
• CA must plan & maintain history of the certificates & the keys of its user’s.
• This helps us to inquire a document which is signed way back.
• It help to avert legal problems.

The PKIX Model
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) formed the Public
Key Infrastructure X.509 (PKIX) working group.
 It extends the basic philosophy of the X.509 standard &
specify how digital certificates can be deployed in world of
internet.

PKIX Services
1) It offers following broad level services:
2) Registration: Where an end-entity (subject) makes itself known to CA.
3) Initialization: How the end-entity is sure that it is talking to right CA?
4) Certification: Ca creates digital certificate for the end-entity & returns it to the end-
entity, maintains a copy for its own records.
5) Key pair recovery: Key used for encryption are used at the later date for decrypting
old documents. Basically key archival is done.
6) Key generation: PKIX specifies that end-entity should be able to generate Pvt.-
Public key pairs, or CA must be able to for end-entity.
7) Key update: Smooth transition from one expiring key pair to a fresh one by
automatic renewal of digital certificates.
8) Cross-certification: End-entities certified by different CAs can cross verify each
other.
9) Revocation: Checking of certification status in two modes : online & offline.
Public Key Cryptographic Standards
(PKCS)
• PKCS is developed by RSA laboratories with the help of representatives of
government, industry & academicians.
• Main purpose of PKCS is to standardize Public Key Infrastructure (PKI).
• This would organizations to develop inter operable PKI solutions.
• We will discuss important PKCS standards.

PKCS#14-Psuedo-Random Number
Generation Standard
• Random no. generation are extremely crucial in cryptography.
• This standard defines the requirements for generating random no.
• In fact many programming languages are provided with the facility of
generating random no..
• But they are not truly random- over a period of time we can predict them.
• Because computers are rule based machines with finite range of generating
random no.
• Thus random no. are generated by external means. This process is called
psuedo-random no. generation.

PKCS#14-Psuedo-Random Number
Generation Standard
• There are three ways to generate Psuedo-random no. using computer which are
as follows:
• Monitor hardware that generates random data: It is best but most costliest
approach of generating random no. using computers. The generator is an
electronic circuit, which is sensitive to some random physical event, such as
diode noise etc. This unpredictable sequence is transformed into random no.
• Collect random data from user interactions: Such as mouse.
• Collect data from inside the computer: Data from inside the computer which is
hard to predict. This data can be system clock or files in the disk etc………

Thank You

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Concepts of Cyber Security

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