Unit 1

UNIT – 1
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

THEORY OF METAL MACHINING
1. Overview of Machining Technology
2. Theory of Chip Formation in Metal Machining
3. Force Relationships and the
Merchant Equation
4. Power and Energy Relationships in Machining
5. Cutting Temperature
6. Cutting tool
7. Tool wear and tool life
8. Cutting fluids
9. machinability
Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
starting work part so the remaining part has the
desired geometry
 Machining – material removal by a sharp
cutting tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
 Abrasive processes – material removal by
hard, abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
 Nontraditional processes - various energy
forms other than sharp cutting tool to remove
material
Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed
(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Why Machining is Important
 Variety of work materials can be machined
 Most frequently used to cut metals
 Variety of part shapes and
special geometric features possible, such
as:
 Screw threads
 Accurate round holes
 Very straight edges and surfaces
 Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
Disadvantages with Machining
 Wasteful of material
 Chips generated in machining are wasted
material, at least in the unit operation
 Time consuming
 A machining operation generally takes more
time to shape a given part than alternative
shaping processes, such as casting, powder
metallurgy, or forming
Machining in Manufacturing Sequence
 Generally performed after other manufacturing
processes, such as casting, forging, and bar
drawing
 Other processes create the general shape
of the starting work part
 Machining provides the final shape,
dimensions, finish, and special geometric
details that other processes cannot create
Machining Operations
 Most important machining operations:
 Turning
 Drilling
 Milling
 Other machining operations:

 Shaping and planning
 Broaching
 Sawing
Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a

rotating work piece to form a cylindrical shape
Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,

Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of
a rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges
(b) drilling,
Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight surface
 Two forms: peripheral milling and face milling
(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

Cutting Tool Classification
1. Single-Point Tools
 One dominant cutting edge
 Point is usually rounded
to form a nose radius
 Turning uses single point tools
2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

 More than one cutting edge
 Motion relative to work achieved by rotating
 Drilling and milling use rotating
multiple cutting edge tools
Cutting Tools
(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point; and (b)
a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting
edges.
Cutting Conditions in Machining
 Three dimensions of a machining process:

 Cutting speed v – primary motion
 Feed f – secondary motion
 Depth of cut d –
penetration of tool below original
work surface
 For certain operations, material

removal rate can be computed as
RMR = v f d
where v = cuttingspeed; f
= feed; d =
depth of cut
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Cutting Conditions for Turning
Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

Roughing vs. Finishing
In production, several roughing cuts are usually taken
on the part, followed by one or two finishing cuts
 Roughing - removes large amounts of material from

starting workpart
 Createsshape close to desired
geometry,
but leaves some material for finish cutting
 High feeds and depths, low speeds
 Finishing - completes part geometry

 Final dimensions, tolerances, and finish
 Low feeds and depths, high cutting speeds
Machine Tools
A power driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding
 Functions in machining:
 Holds work part
 Positions tool relative to work
 Provides power at speed,
feed, and depth that have
been set
 The term is also applied to machines that
perform metal forming operations
Orthogonal Cutting Model
Simplified 2-D model of machining that describes
the mechanics of machining fairly accurately
Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

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Chip Thickness Ratio

to
r
tc
where r = chip thickness ratio;

to = thickness of the chip
prior to chip formation;
tc = chip thickness after
separation
 Chip thickness after cut always greater than
before, so chip ratio always less than 1.0
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Determining Shear Plane Angle

 Based on the geometric parameters of the
orthogonal model, the shear plane angle  can
be determined as:
r cos
tan 
1  r sin
where r = chip ratio

 = rake angle

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Shear Strain in Chip Formation
Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a

series of parallel plates sliding relative to each other, (b) one of the
plates isolated to show shear strain, and (c) shear strain triangle used
to derive strain equation.
Shear Strain
Shear strain in machining can be computed
from the following equation, based on the
preceding parallel plate model:
 = tan( - ) + cot 
where  = shear strain,  = shear plane
angle, and  = rake angle of cutting tool
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Chip Formation
More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

than shear plane. Also shown is the secondary shear zone resulting
from tool-chip friction.

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Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

1. Discontinuous chip
2. Continuous chip
3. Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4. Serrated chip

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Discontinuous Chip
 Brittle work materials

 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth
of cut
 High tool-chip friction
Four types of chip formation

in metal cutting:
(a) discontinuous

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Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials

 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and
depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool-chip friction
(b) continuous
Continuous with BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low to
medium
 Toolcutting speeds
and chip friction
causes portions of chip
to adhere to rake face
BUE forms, then
breaks off, cyclically
(c) continuous with built-up edge

Serrated Chip
 Semi continuous –
saw tooth
appearance
 Cyclical chip
with alternating
forms high
shear strain then low
shear strain
Associated
with difficult-to-
machine metals at
high cutting speeds (d) serrated.
Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn
Forces in metal cutting: (a)

forces acting on the chip in
orthogonal cutting
Resultant Forces
 Vector addition of F and N = resultant R
 Vector addition of Fs and Fn = resultant R'
 Forces acting on the chip must be in balance:
 R' must be equal in magnitude to R
 R’ must be opposite in direction to R
 R’ must be collinear with R
Coefficient of Friction
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip:
 F
N
Friction angle related to coefficient of friction

as follows:
  tan 
Shear Stress
Shear stress acting along the shear plane:
Fs
S
As
where As = area of the shear plane

tow
As 
sin 
Shear stress = shear strength of work material

during cutting
Cutting Force and Thrust Force
 F, N, Fs, and Fn cannot be directly measured
 Forces acting on the tool that can be measured:
 Cutting force Fc and Thrust force Ft
Forces in metal
cutting: (b) forces
acting on the tool that
can be measured
Forces in Metal Cutting
 Equations can be derived to relate the forces
that cannot be measured to the forces that can
be measured:
F = Fc sin + Ft cos N = Fc cos - Ft sin Fs =
Fc cos - Ft sin Fn = Fc sin + Ft cos
 Based on these calculated force, shear stress
and coefficient of friction can be determined
The Merchant Equation
 Of all the possible angles at which shear
deformation can occur, the work material will
select a shear plane angle  that minimizes
energy, given by
  45    
2 2
Derived by Eugene
Merchant but validity
Based on
orthogonal cutting,
extends to 3-D
machining
What the Merchant Equation Tells Us

  45   
2 2
To increase shear plane angle

 Increase the rake angle
 Reducethe frictionangle (or
coefficient of friction)
Effect of Higher Shear Plane Angle
 Higher shear plane angle means smaller shear
plane which means lower shear force, cutting
forces, power, and temperature
Effect of shear plane angle  : (a) higher  with a resulting lower shear
plane area; (b) smaller  with a corresponding larger shear plane
area. Note that the rake angle is larger in (a), which tends to increase
shear angle according to the Merchant equation
Power and Energy Relationships
 A machining operation requires power
 The power to perform machining
can be computed from:
Pc = Fc v
where Pc = cuttingpower; Fc
= cuttingforce; and v = cutting speed
 In U.S. customary units, power is traditional
expressed as horsepower (dividing ft-lb/min by
33,000)
Fcv
HPc 
33,000
where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

 Gross power to operate the machine tool Pg or
HPg is given by
Pc HPc
Pg  or HPg 
E E
where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

 Typical E for machine tools  90%
Unit Power in Machining
 Useful to convert power into power per unit
volume rate of metal cut
 Called unit power, Pu or unit horsepower, HPu
Pc HPc
PU = or HPu =
RMR RMR
where RMR = material removal rate

Specific Energy in Machining
Unit power is also known as the specific energy U
Pc Fc v
U = Pu = =
RMR vtow
Units for specific energy are typically

N-m/mm3 or J/mm3 (in-lb/in3)
Cutting Temperature
 Approximately 98% of the energy in machining
is converted into heat
 This can cause temperatures to be very high at
the tool chip interface
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is
retained as elastic energy in the chip
Cutting Temperatures are Important
High cutting temperatures
1.Reduce tool life
2.Produce hot chips that pose safety hazards to
the machine operator
3.Can cause inaccuracies in part dimensions
due to thermal expansion of work material
Cutting Temperature
 Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook

from dimensional analysis using
experimental data for various work materials
0.333
T
0.4U  vt o   
C K
 
where T = temperature rise at tool-chip
interface; U = specific energy; v = cutting
speed; to = chip thickness before cut; C =
volumetric specific heat of work material; K =
thermal diffusivity of work material
Cutting Temperature
 Experimental methods can be used to measure
temperatures in machining
 Most frequently used technique is
the
tool-chip thermocouple
 Using this method, Ken Trigger determined the
speed-temperature relationship to be of the
form:
T = K vm
where T = measured tool-chip
interface temperature, and v = cutting
speed
Thermal Aspects
 Energy dissipated at the cutting edge is
converted into heat
 Three regions where heat is generated are
1. Shear zone
 80 - 85% of heat is generated
2. Chip - tool interface region
 15 – 20 % oh heat is generated
3. Tool – work interface region
 1 – 3 % of heat is generated
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Cutting Tool Materials

 Selection of cutting tool depends on
 Volume of production
 Tool design
 Type of machining process
 Physical and chemical properties of work
material
 Rigidity and condition of machine
 Properties / Characteristics of cutting tool
 Hot hardness
 Wear resistance
 Toughness
 Low friction
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Cutting Tool Materials

 Classification of tool materials
 Carbon tool steel
 High Speed steel
 Cemented carbides
 Ceramics
 Diamonds
 Cubic boron nitride

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Tool Wear
 Classification
 Flank wear
 Crater wear
 Nose wear

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Tool Life
 Ways of expressing tool life
 Volume of metal removed per grind
 Number of work pieces machined per grind
 Time unit
 Factors affecting tool life
 Cutting speed
 Feed and depth of cut
 Tool geometry
 Tool material
 Cutting fluid
 Work material
 Rigidity of work, tool and machine
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Tool Life v Tool Wear

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Cutting Fluids
 Used to carry away the heat produced during
machining
 Functions of cutting fluids
 Cools the tool and work piece
 Lubricates the cutting tool
 Reduces co-efficient of friction between tool and
work piece
 Improves surface finish
 Causes the chip to break up into small pieces
 Washes away the chips from the tool
 Prevents corrosion of work and machine

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Cutting Fluids
 Properties of cutting fluids
 Should possess good lubricating properties
 Should have high heat absorbing capacity
 Should have high specific heat
 Should be odorless
 Should be non-corrosive
 Should have low viscosity
 Should be harmless
 Should not stain
 Should be economical
 Should be transparent

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Cutting Fluids
 Types of cutting fluids
 Water based cutting fluids
 Straight or heat oil based cutting fluids
1. Mineral oils
2. Straight fatty oils
3. Mixed oils
4. Sulphurised oils
5. Chlorinated oils
 Methods of applying cutting fluids
 Drop by drop under gravity
 Flood under gravity
 Form of liquid jet
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Machinability
 Defined as the ease with which a material can
be satisfactorily machined
 Also defined as
 Life of tool before tool failure
 Quality of machined surface
 Power consumption per unit volume of material
removed
 Variables affecting machinability
 Work variables
 Tool variables
 Machine variables
 Cutting conditions
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Machinability
 Evaluation of machinability
 Tool life per grind
 Rate of metal removal per grind tool grind
 Surface finish
 Magnitude of cutting forces and power
consumption
 Dimensional stability of the finished work
 Heat generated during cutting
 Ease of chip disposal
 Chip hardness
 Shape and size of chips

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Machinability
 Advantages
 Good surface finish can be produced
 Higher cutting speed can be used
 Less power consumption
 MRR is high
 Less tool wear
 Machinability Index
C.S. of metal investigated or 20 mins tool life

=
C.S. of standard steel for 20 mins tool life
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SS K,A P/ M E CH ,S VC E T
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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II
UNIT III
SHAPER, MILLING AND GEAR CUTTING

MACHINES
Prepared by
S. Senthil Kumar
AP / Mech
SVCET
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MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY – II
 Reciprocating Machine Tools: Shaper, Planer, Slotter

 Milling: Types, Milling Cutters, Operations
 Hole Making: Drilling, Quill Mechanism
, Reaming, Boring, Tapping
 Sawing Machine: Hack Saw, Band Saw, Circular Saw
 BroachingMachines: Broach Construction, Push, Pull,
Surface and Continuous Broaching Machines

SHAPER www.rejinpaul.com
 SHAPER is a reciprocating type of machine tool with single point cutting

tool used to produce flat surface.
 The flat surface may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.
Parts of Shaper:
1. Table
2. Tool Head
3. Ram
 The tool head is fitted on the front end of the ram while the job is rigidly
fixed on the table.
 The tool is mounted on the tool post or head.
 The ram reciprocates along with the tool to remove the metal in the
forward stroke called cutting stroke.
Classification of Shapwwew.rrejinpaul.com
1. According to the type of driving mechanism
i. Crank drive type
ii. Whit worth driving mechanism type
iii. Hydraulic drive type
2. According to the position of ram
i. Horizontal shaper
ii. Vertical shaper
iii. Travelling head shaper
3. According to the table design
i. Standard or plain shaper
ii. Universal shaper
4. According to the type of cutting stroke
i. Push out type
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Principle Parts of Shawpwwe.rerjinpaul.com

Specification of Shapwwewr.rejinpaul.com
The specification of a typical shaper are listedbelow.
 Maximum length of stroke
 Maximum crosswise movement of the table
 Maximum vertical adjustment of the table
 Type of driving mechanism
 Power of the motor
 Speed and feed available
 Type of shaper (Plain or Universal)
 Floor space required
 Total weight of the shaper
 Ratio of cutting stroke time to return stroketime.

Hydraulic Drive www.rejinpaul.com

Crank and Slotted Link and
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Whit worth Mechanism

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Stroke length arrangement

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Position arrangement

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Feed Mechanism – Hand feed

Feed Mechanism – Automatic
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Table feed

Work Holding devic e s –
w ww .re
Clamping in a vise
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w ww .re
Clamping on the table

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w ww .re
Clamping on a V Block
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Clamping on angle
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plate

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Shaper Tools

Shaper Operations –
Ma c h i n i n g
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Horizontal Surfaces

Ma c h i n i n g
Vertical Surfaces

Ma c h i n i n g
Angular Surfaces

Ma c h i n i n g Slots ,
grooves and Keyways

Ma c h i n i n g
Irregular Surfaces

PLANER www.rejinpaul.com
 PLANER is a very large reciprocating machine tool.

 The work is mounted on the table by any one of the work holding
devices.
 Two vertical columns with vertical guide ways are provided on both
sides of the bed and connected by a cross-rail to mount the tool heads
and also connected by a cross beam at the top.
 These tool heads are used to hold the tools.

 The tool cuts the workpiece when the table reciprocates.
 The cross feed is given by moving the tool head along the cross-rail.
 Vertical feed is given by moving down the tool.
 The tool slide can be tilted or swivelled at any required angle using a
swivel head for machining inclined surfaces.
Classification of Planwwewr.rejinpaul.com
The various types of planer are as follows.
1. Double housing planer
2. Open side planer
3. Pit planer
4. Edge planer
5. Divided table planer
Specification of Planer
The distance between two columns
Stroke length of the planer
Radial distance between the top of the table and the bottom most
position of the cross rail
Maximum length of the table

Power of the motor
Range of the speeds and feed available
Type of drives requirGedet useful study materials from
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Pit Planer

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Edge Planer

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Divided Head Planer

Quick return mechanism –
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O p e n and Cross belt

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Quick return
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Electric drive

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Feed mechanism

Work Holding devices – w
A n g l e plate , Screw
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stops, Planer Jacks

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Work Holding devices - Fixtures

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Planer Tools

Planer Operations –
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, CURVED
Surfaces

Difference Between
Sha p e r a n d
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Planer

SLOTTER www.rejinpaul.com
 SLOTTER is a reciprocating type machine tool.

 In this machine, the ram reciprocates vertically.
 The tool held in the ram cuts during downward stroke only.
Parts of Slotter
1. Base
2. Column
3. Saddle
4. Rotary table
5. Ram
6. Tool head
Slotter Operations
 Machining flat surface
 Machining grooves, slots, keyways
 Machining cylindrical surface
 Machining irregular surface
Principle Parts of Slowtwtwe.rrejinpaul.com

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Drives
1. Whit worth mechanism

2. Variable speed reversible electric motor
drive
3. Hydraulic Drive

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Feed mechanism

Work Holding Devices –
S lo tti n g
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fixtures

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Slotter Tools

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Slotter Operations

MILLING www.rejinpaul.com
 MILLING is the process of removing metal by feeding the workpiece

against a rotating multipoint cutter.
 The metal is removed in the form of small chips.
Principle of Operation
In Up Milling Process, the workpiece is fed opposite to the cutter's
tangential velocity. Each tooth of the cutter starts the cut with zero
depth of cut.
In Down Milling Process, the workpiece is fed in the same direction as

that of the cutter's tangential velocity. the cutter enters the top of the
workpiece and removes the chip that gets progressively thinner as the
cutter tooth rotates.

MILLING www.rejinpaul.com
Specification of Milling Machine

 The table length and width
 Maximum longitudinal cross and vertical travel of thetable
 Number of spindle speeds and feeds
 Power of driving motor
 Floor space and net weight
 Spindle nose taper size
 Type of milling machine
Classification of Milling Machine
1. Column and Knee Type 4. Plano-Type Milling Machine
i. Plain Milling Machine 5. Special Purpose Milling Machine
ii. Vertical Milling Machine i. Rotary Table Milling Machine
iii. Universal Milling Machine ii. Drum Milling Machine
iv. Ram-type Milling Machine iii. Profile Milling Machine
v. Omniversal Milling Machine
2. Bed-Type Milling Machine
i. Simplex Milling Machine
ii. Duplex Milling Machine
iii. Triplex Milling MGaecthuisneefulstudy materials from www.rejinpaul.com
Column and Knee Type -Horiz o n t a l M i lling
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Column and Knee Type - Vertwiwcwa.relnij Mpauil.clolming

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Milling Machines

Column and Knee Type -
U n i v e r s al
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Milling Machine

Column and Knee Ty p e -
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Omniversal Milling
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Machine

Bed Type- Fixed Plain
M il l in g
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machine

Bed Type – Duplex Head Milliwnwwg.reMjinpaaucl.chomine

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Plano type Milling Machine

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Drum type Milling Machine

Rotary and Profile
M i l li n g
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Machines

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Work Holding Devices

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Tool Holding Devices

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Milling Attachments

Milling Cutters – Slab
M il l i n g
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Cutter

Milling Cutters – Side
M il l i n g
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Cutter

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Milling Cutters

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Milling Cutters

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Milling Cutters

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Nomenclature of
Plain M i l l i n g
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Cutter

Milling operations –
Per i p h e r a l and Face
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milling operations

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Milling operations

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Milling operations

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Milling operations

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Milling operations

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Milling operations

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Gang Milling

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Indexing mechanisms

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Index Plates with sector arms

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Indexing mechanisms

DRILLING www.rejinpaul.com
 DRILLING is the process of producing hole ion the work piece by using a
rotating cutter called drill.
 The machine on which the drilling is carried out is called drilling machines.
 The drilling machine sometimes called drill press as the machine exerts
vertical pressure to originate a hole.
Specification of Drilling Machine

 Maximum size of the drill in mm that the machine can operate.
 Table size of maximum dimensions of a job can mount on a table in square
metre.
 Maximum spindle travel in mm.
 Number of spindle speeds and range of spindle speeds in RPM.
 Number of automatic spindle feeds or feed range available in mm/rev.
 Morse taper number of the drill spindle nose.
 Power input of the machine HP.
 Floor space required in m2.
Net weight of the machGineet uinseTfuolnsntued. y materials from
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Hole Making

Classification of Drilling
MwMachine
1. Portable Drilling waw.rcejhinpianul.ecom
2. Sensitive Drilling Machine

i. Bench Type
ii. Floor Type
3. Upright Drilling Machine
i. Round Column Type or Pillar Type
ii. Box Column Type or Square Section Type
4. Radial Drilling Machine
i. Plain Type
ii. Semi-Universal Type
iii. Universal Type
5. Gang Drilling Machine
6. Multiple Spindle Drilling Machine
7. Automatic Drilling Machine
8. Deep Hole Drilling Machine
Portable Drilling Macwhwiwn.reejinpaul.com

Bench Type Sensitive DrillinwgwwM.rejinapacuhl.coimne

Pillar Drilling Machiwnwwe.rejinpaul.com

Radial Drilling Machwiwnwe.rejinpaul.com

Gang Drilling Machiwnwwe.rejinpaul.com

Turret Drilling Machwiwnw.erejinpaul.com

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Automatic Feed Mechanism

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Drilling operations

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Twist Drill nomenclature

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Twist Drill nomenclature

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Mounting the Drill tool

Mounting the Drill too l –
ww w
B y directly fitting into the

.reji npa ul.com
spindle

Mounting the Drill tool -
B y u s in g a
ww w. rejin pa ul. c om
sleeve

Mounting the Drill tool -
B y u sin g a
w ww .reji npa ul .c om
socket

Mounting the Drill tool –
B y u sin g
ww w. rejin pa ul .c om
chucks

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Reaming Tool

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Various reamers

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Tapping Tool

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Boring

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Horizontal Boring Machine

Floor Type
HorizontalwBwwo.rejrin
pianul.gcom
Machine

Table type Horizontal
B o r in g
w ww .re jin p au l.com
Machine

Planer type
Horizontal B o r i n g
ww w. rej inp a ul.c om
Machine

Multi spindle
Horizonta l B o r i
w ww .re jinp a ul
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.co m

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Vertical & Turret Boring Machine

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Jig Boring Machine

Sawing – Selection of
Bl a d e f o r Sawing
w ww .re jinp au l.c om
machine

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Broaching

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Horizontal type
Inte r n a l
w ww .re jin paul.com
Broaching machine

Horizontal type surface
B r o a c h in g
ww w .re jin pa ul.c o m
machine

Push down type
Ver t i c a
w w w .re ji
l Broaching machine
n paul.com

Pull down type and
Up t y p e Vertical
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Broaching machine

Horizontal type
conti n u o u s
w w w.r ejin pa ul.com
Broaching machine

Rotary type
continu o u s
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Broaching machine

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Broach tool nomenclature

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Push type Broach

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Pull type Broach

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Progressive type Broach

Broaching operations – Spline
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Broaching

Broaching operations –
K e y w a y
w ww .re jinp aul .co m
Broaching

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Manufacturing Technology II (ME 6402)
Unit 5 – CNC Machining
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NC Machine Tools
Mechanical actions of a machine tool or other
equipment are controlled by a program
containing coded alphanumeric data
Alphanumeric data represents the relative

position between a work head and a work part
When the current job is completed, a new

program can be entered for the next job

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Constructional Details
Basic Components of NC system
1. Program of • Part programming in

Instructions machining
2. Machine Control •Controls the processes

Unit
3. Processing
•Performs the processes
Equipment

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Types of CNC
Based on Motion • Point to point

type • Continuous path
Based on Control • Open Loop

Loops • Closed loop
• Electric
Based on Power • Hydraulic
Supply • Pneumatic
Based on • Incremental
Positioning System • obsolete

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Special Features in CNC
High Precision
Increases Production
Reduces Labor intensity
Improves Working Condition
Enables unmanned operation

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Design Considerations of CNC Machine
• Productivity
• Reduction of machine Time
• Reduction of non-productive time
• Machining with more than one tool simultaneously
• Improved reliability of machine components
• Proper maintenance to prevent unscheduled stoppage
• Accuracy
• Improve geometrical accuracy of machine elements
• Lead screw
• Guide ways
• Improves kinematic accuracy of machine tools
• Increases static and dynamic stiffness of machine tool structure
• Provides accurate machine tool for measuring distance
• Reduces thermal deformation of tool while machining

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• Machine response
• Magnitude of load
• Range of travel
• Safe and easy control

• Shield should be provided on the rotating and moving part
• Protects the operator from chips, abrasive ducts and coolants by using
screens and shield
• Better clamping mechanism to withstand tool force
• Provides emergency stop buttons
• Provides over load production switches, buttons, etc.,
• Appearance
• Good appearance and attractiveness to the workers to interest on machines
• Cost
• Low cost for manufacturing and operation
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• Operating characteristics
• Reliability
• Maintainability
• Component characteristics
• Frictional characteristics and amount of backlash
• Inertia and stiffness
• Simplicity in Design
• Uses simplified standard and sub-parts

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Structural members of CNC
Slide Ways
Linear Bearings
Ball Screw
Spindle Drives
Feed Drives

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Slide Ways
• Designed to provide a free motion in one direction

• Laterally
• Longitudinally
• Also called as linear motion bearing slide
• Powered by either manual operation or inertial operation

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Types of Slide Ways
•Oil lubricated slide ways

Hydrostatic slide ways •Air bearing slide ways
Antifriction slide ways •Ball type slide ways

•Roller type slide ways
• Induction hardened slide

ways
Wear resistant slide • Flame hardened slide ways
ways • Surface coatedslideways

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Hydrostatic Slide ways
• Liquid friction condition of the interface of mating

surface are achieved by supplying under pressure
• Sliding bodies must not be inclined to each other
• Used in high expensive machine
• Example
• Grinding machine - programmed controllable
• copying machine

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Oil Lubricated Slide Ways
• Friction is minimized by forcing oil under pressure
between mating surfaces
• Pressure is automatically varied according to the load

on surface

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Air Lubricated Slide W a y s
• Pressurized air is used instead of oil
• Used for positioning the slide when no machining is

carried out
• Disadvantages
• Misalignments may happen due to lifting of slides
• Uneven distribution of load on work table

Anti friction slide waywsww.rejinpaul.com
• Conventional machines have the property of stick-slip due to

high sliding friction at low velocity
• To avoid this sliding, contact is avoided by making the

contact in point or line by converting sliding friction to
rolling friction
• Types
• Ball bearing guide ways
• Roller bearing guide ways

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Ball bearing slide ways
• The bed forms the guide

way for the ball to
recirculate
•Hardened inserts are fitted

into the table which is
located on the ball track
with a single flat structure
in contact with the balls
•The ball rolls between four

rods, two fixed to the table
and two fixed to the bed
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Roller bearing Slide ways
• Instead of ball, which avoids direct contact of the surface,

roller is used
• Increases the load carrying capacity
• Hardened steel inserts are used as rollers to

minimize the friction
• Suitable for using in boring and milling machines

Wear Resistant Slide Waywsww.rejinpaul.com
• Non metallic parts or plastic inserts are used
• Inserts stick to the underside of the moving element
• Inserts are made up of 2 materials

• First material reduces coefficient of friction
• Other increases strength, load bearing capacity and
self lubricating capacity
• Poly Tetra Fluro Ethene (PTFE), Ferobestos – CA, turcite

B are some of the materials used to make positive contact

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Linear Bearings
Types
Roller Element bearing

Ball bearing slides
Roller Slides
Plain Bearing
Dovetail Slides
Compound Slides
Rack Slides

Roller element bearingwww.rejinpaul.com
• Composed of a sleeve-like outer ring and several rows of balls
retained by cages.
• The cages were originally machined from solid
metal and were quickly replaced by stampings.
• Features smooth motion, low friction, high rigidity and long
life.
• They are economical, and easy to maintain and replace
• Can run only on hardened steel or stainless steel shafting.
• More rigid than plain bearings.
• Do not handle contamination well and require seals.
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0 9-Feb 20
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Ball Bearing Slides
• Ball bearing slides offer smooth precision motion along a
single-axis linear design
• self-lubrication properties that increase reliability
• applications include
• delicate instrumentation,
• robotic assembly,
• cabinetry,
• high-end appliances
• clean room environments
• manufacturing industry
• furniture
• electronics
• construction industries
• powered by either
09-Feb-15
a drive mechanism, inertia or by hand
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Ball Bearing Slides
• For example, a widely used ball bearing slide in the furniture
industry is a ball bearing drawer slide
• Constructed from materials such as
– aluminum,
– hardened cold rolled steel
– galvanized steel
• Ball bearing slides consist of two linear rows of ball bearings

contained by four rods and located on differing sides of the
base, which supports the carriage for smooth linear movement
along the ball bearings
• A lower load capacity for their size compared to other linear
slides because the balls are less resistant to wear and
abrasions.
Roller Slides www.rejinpaul.com
• Also known as crossed roller slides
• non-motorized linear slides that provide low-

friction linear movement for equipment powered by
inertia or by hand.
• Provide heavier load capabilities and better movement control.
• Serving industries such as

• manufacturing,
• photonics,
• medical and telecommunications,
• roller slides are versatile
• clean rooms,
• Applications include
• vacuum environments,
09-Feb-15
• material handlingGaentduasuetoSfSumKl,aAsPtti/uoMndEyCmHm,aScVahCtEieTnreiraysl. from www.rejinpaul.com 23
Roller Slides - Constructiwownw.rejinpaul.com
• Consisting of a stationary linear base and a moving carriage,
roller slides work similarly to ball bearing slides, except that the
bearings housed within the carriage are cylinder-shaped instead
of ball shaped.
• The rollers crisscross each other at a 90° angle and move

between the four semi-flat and parallel rods that surround the
rollers.
• The rollers are between "V" grooved bearing races, one being on
the top carriage and the other on the base.
• Typically, carriages are constructed from aluminum and the rods

and rollers are constructed from steel, while the end caps are
09-Fcebo-15nstructed from stGaeintulesseSsfSuKsl,AtsPet/ueMdlEy.CHm,SVaCtEeTrials from www.rejinpaul.com 24
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Roller Slides
• Although roller slides are not self-cleaning, they are suitable
for environments with low levels of airborne contaminants
such as dirt and dust.
• Roller slides offers line contact versus point contact as with

ball bearings, creating a broader contact surface due to the
consistency of contact between the carriage and the base and
resulting in less erosion.

Plain Bearings www.rejinpaul.com
• Plain bearings can run on hardened steel or stainless steel

shafting (raceways), or can be run on soft steel or aluminum.
• The specific type of polymer/fluoro-polymer will

determine what hardness is allowed.
• Less rigid than rolling-element bearings.
• Handles contamination well and do not need

often seals/scrapers.
• Generally handles a wider temperature range than rolling-

element bearings

• Plain bearings do not require oil or lubrication
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Dovetail Slides
• Typically constructed from cast iron, but can also be
constructed from hard-coat aluminum or stainless steel
• Carriage has a v-shaped, or dovetail-shaped protruding

channel which locks into the linear base's correspondingly
shaped groove.
• Once the dovetail carriage is fitted into its base's channel, the
carriage is locked into the channel's linear axis and allows
free linear movement.
• When a platform is attached to the carriage of a dovetail slide,

a dovetail table is created, offering extended load carrying
capabilities.
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Dovetail Slides
• Greater force is required to move the saddle than other linear
slides, which results in slower acceleration rates
• Advantageous when it comes to

• load capacity, affordability and durability.
• Capable of long travel
• more resistant to shock than other bearings
• mostly immune to chemical, dust and dirt contamination
• Used in the manufacturing and laboratory science industries
• Not ideal for high-precision applications.

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Compound Slides
• Slides can be constructed with two sections or multiple

sections
• A slide with two sections can only extend approximately 3/4

of the total compressed slide length.
• A compound slide typically has three sections
• fixed,
• floating intermediate member and
• the section attached to the equipment.
• A compound slide can extend at least as far as the

compressed slide length and typically a bit more.
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Rack Slides
• These can be friction bearing, ball bearing, or roller bearing.
• They are sized to fit into racks with mounting flanges on the ends to
mate to the mounting holes in racks.
• In some cases, one mounting flange is formed into the rack slide
with an adapter bracket attached to the other end to accommodate
different depths of the rack.
• The outer fixed member is attached to the rack and the inner moving
member is generally screwed to the side of the mounted equipment.
• Rack slides are typically compound or 3-part slides allowing full

extension of the mounted equipment and generally include provision
for sliding the inner member completely free to allow removal of the
equipment from the rack.
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Ball Screw
• A ball screw is a mechanical linear actuator that translates
rotational motion to linear motion with little friction.
• A threaded shaft provides a helical raceway for ball

bearings which act as a precision screw.
•As well as being able to apply or withstand high thrust loads,

they can do so with minimum internal friction.
•They are made to close tolerances and are therefore suitable

for use in situations in which high precision is necessary.
•The ball assembly acts as the nut while the threaded shaft is
the screw.
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Ball Screw
• Another form of linear actuator based on a rotating rod is
the thread less ball screw.
• Three (or more) rolling-ring bearings are arranged
symmetrically in a housing surrounding a smooth (thread-less)
actuator rod or shaft.
•The bearings are set at an angle to the rod, and this angle
determines the direction and rate of linear motion per
revolution of the rod.

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Part Programming
• Sequence of instructions
• Task of preparing a program sheet from a drawing sheet
• The machining data is as follows
• Machining sequence classification of process, tool start up point, cutting depth,

tool path
• Cutting conditions, spindle speed, feed rate, coolant
• Selection of cutting tools

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Steps involved in Part programming

• Determine the start up procedure
• Select the tool and determine the tool offset
• Set up the zero position for the work piece
• Select the speed and rotation of the spindle
• Set up the tool motions according to the profile required
• Return the cutting tool to the reference point after

completion of work
• End the programGet

09-Feb-15 byuse
stopping the
SfSuKl,AsPt/uMdEyCHm,SVaCtEeTspindle
rials fromand control
www.rejinpaul.com 34
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Types of part programming
• Manual Part Programming
• Computer Aided Part Programming

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Manual Part Programming

• The programmer prepares the program manuscript in a
standard format
• Manuscripts are typed in

flexo writer, which is
used to type program instructions
• Once the program is typed, the punched tape is prepared

on the flexo writer
• Complex shaped components require tedious calculations
• This type of programming is

09-Feb-15 carried Get out
useSfSuKl,AsPt/uMdEyCHfor
m,SVaCtEesimple
Trials frommachining parts
www.rejinpaul.com 36
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Computer Aided Part Programming
• The programmer communicates with this system through

the system language, which is based on words
• Programming languages are
• APT (Automatically programmed Tools)

• ADAPT
• AUTOSPOT
• COMPAT-II
• 2CL
• ROMANCE
• SPLIT

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Computer Aided Part Programming
• The programmer has to do the following things
• Define the work part geometry

• Define the repetition work
• Specify the operation sequence

Machining Center www.rejinpaul.com
• Most important types of CNC machine tools

• ATC is used here
• Following operations are carried out
– Milling
– Drilling
– Reaming
– Boring
– Tapping
• Indexable tool magazine carries 16 to 100 tools
• Machining centre has 2 or more tables named as pallets
• An automatic pallet centre is used and time will be reduced
• Classification
– Horizontal spindle machining centre
– Vertical spindle machining centre
– universal machining centre
• Horizontal machining centre

– Single spindle machines
– Automatic Tool Changer (ATC)
– Bed type machine
– Axis
• X = Table or Column
• Y = Spindle Head
• Z = Saddle or column or head stock or spindle
– Rotary indexing table
• Vertical machining centre

– Single or multi spindle
– ATC or Turret head
– Axis
• X = Table or Column
• Y = Saddle or Colum or Ram
• Z = Head Stock
• Universal machining centre

– Has single spindle
– Spindle is capable of fitting horizontal to vertical
– It has five axis of machine
– Flexibility is more than other two type of machines
– Tool breakage detection is possible
– Automatics loading and unloading of work piece are possible
• Turning centers
– Horizontal machines
• Chucking machines
• Shaft machines
• Universal machines
– Vertical machines

Preparatory function – G Codes
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• G 00 – rapid motion
• G 01 – linear motion
• G 02 – circular motion (clockwise)
• G 03 – circular motion (anticlockwise)
• G 20 – inches programming
• G 21 – metric programming (mm)
• G 28 – reference point
• G 33 – thread cutting operation (constant lead screw)
• G 37 – calling of sub-route
• G 40 – cutter nose radius compensation (cancel)
• G 41 – cutter compensation (in left)
• G 42 – cutter composition (in right)
Preparatory function – G Codes
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• G 63 – tapping operation
• G 70 – finishing cycle lathe
• G 71 – rough cutting cycle lathe
• G 78,79 – milling cycle
• G 83 – drilling cycle
• G 90 – absolute dimensioning
• G 91 – incremental dimensioning
• G 92 – position preset
• G 94 – feed rate in mm/min
• G 95 – feed rate in mm/rev
• G 98 – absolute datum
• G 99 – floating datum
Miscellaneous functions –wwM Codes
w.rejinpaul.com
• M 00 – program stop
• M 02 – end of program
• M 03 – spindle start (clockwise)
• M 04 – spindle start (anticlockwise)
• M 05 – spindle stop
• M 06 – tool change
• M 07 – coolant ON (flood cooling)
• M 08 – coolant ON (mist cooling)
• M 09 – coolant OFF
• M 10 – clamping
• M 11 – unclamping
• M 30 – end of tape
Micromachining www.rejinpaul.com
• A technique for the fabrication of 3D structures on the

micrometer scale
• Refers to super finishing, a metal working process for
producing very fine surface finishes
• Types of micromachining process are
– Bulk micromachining
– Surface micromachining
• Mainly applied in MEMS
– Examples include
• Airbag sensor
• Medical devices
• Micro dies
• molds

Micromachiningwww.rejinpaul.com
• Part to be machined should be made ready by doing the
following preliminary processes
1. Photolithography process
2. Ethching
1. Wet etching
2. Dry etching
3. LIGA (Lithographic, Galvanoforming, Abforming)
1. Resist development
2. X-ray radiation and masking
3. Electroforming
4. Resist removal
5. Plastic molding
4. Laser ablation process
5. Mechanical microforming

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Bulk and surface micromachining

Unit 1

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UNIT – 1

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

(a) A cross-sectional view of the machining process, (b) tool with

 Other machining operations:

Single point cutting tool removes material from a

Three most common machining processes: (a) turning,

(c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.

2. Multiple Cutting Edge Tools

 Three dimensions of a machining process:

 For certain operations, material

Cutting Conditions for Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

 Roughing - removes large amounts of material from

 Finishing - completes part geometry

Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three-dimensional process.

Chip Thickness Ratio

where r = chip thickness ratio;

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Determining Shear Plane Angle

where r = chip ratio

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Shear Strain in Chip Formation

Shear strain during chip formation: (a) chip formation depicted as a

More realistic view of chip formation, showing shear zone rather

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Four Basic Types of Chip in Machining

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 Brittle work materials

Four types of chip formation

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 Ductile work materials

(c) continuous with built-up edge

 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N

Forces in metal cutting: (a)

Friction angle related to coefficient of friction

where As = area of the shear plane

Shear stress = shear strength of work material

To increase shear plane angle

where HPc = cutting horsepower, hp

where E = mechanical efficiency of machine tool

where RMR = material removal rate

Units for specific energy are typically

 Analytical method derived by Nathan Cook

Cutting Tool Materials

Cutting Tool Materials

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Tool Life v Tool Wear

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C.S. of metal investigated or 20 mins tool life

SHAPER, MILLING AND GEAR CUTTING

 Reciprocating Machine Tools: Shaper, Planer, Slotter

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 SHAPER is a reciprocating type of machine tool with single point cutting

 The flat surface may be horizontal, vertical or inclined.

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Whit worth Mechanism