VALUE

• What reasons do we give to decide or to

judge that a certain way of acting is either
right or wrong?

• A person’s fear of punishment or desire for

Reasoning reward can provide him a reason for acting in
a certain way. **

• In a certain sense, fear of punishment and

desire for reward can be spoken of as giving
someone a “reason” for acting in a certain
way.
But the question then would be:
Is this reason good enough?
• The promise of rewards and the fear of punishment
can certainly motivate us to act, but are not in
themselves a determinant of the rightness or
wrongness of a certain way of acting or of good or
the bad in a particular pursuit.

• Asking the question “why” might bring us to no more

than a superficial discussion of rewards and
punishments, but it could also bring us to another
level of thinking.
Beyond rewards and punishments, it is
possible for our moral valuation – our
decisions and judgments – to be based on a
principle.
• We can define principles as rationally
established grounds by which one justifies and
maintains her moral decisions and judgments.

• A moral theory is a systematic attempt to

establish the validity of maintaining certain
moral principles.
• Insofar as a theory is a system of thought or ideas,
it can also be referred to as a “framework.”

• We can use the term “framework,” as a theory of

interconnected ideas, and at the same time, a
structure through which we can evaluate our
reasons for valuing a certain decision or judgment
(ethical framework).
SOURCES OF
AUTHORITY
• Several common ways of thinking about ethics
are based on the idea that the standards of
valuation are imposed by a higher authority that
commands our obedience.
 • It is supposed that law is one’s
guide to ethical behavior.

• Philippines; criminal and civil

Law
codes; provincial laws and city
ordinaces.
• The term positive law refers to the different
rules and regulations that are posited or put
forward by an authority figure that require
compliance.

• Taking the law to be the basis of ethics has

the benefit of providing us with an objective
standard that is obligatory and applicable to
all.
• So, we would not be surprised if we were to hear
someone say, “Ethics? It is simple. Just follow whatever
the law says.”

• But the question is: can one simply identify ethics with
the law?

• The law cannot tell us what to pursue, it only tell us what

to avoid. (e.g., bystander effect)
 • “Love the Lord, Your God,
therefore, and always heed his
charge: his statutes, decrees,
and commandments.” (New
Religion American Bible)

• One is obliged to obey her God

in all things – divine command
theory
• Taking religion as basis for ethics has the
advantage of providing us with not only a
set of commands but also a Supreme
Authority that can inspire and compel our
obedience in a way that nothing else can.

• “thou shall not kill,” “thou shall not steal,”

and “thou shall not commit adultery.”
• Problems with Religion:

1. Multiplicity of religions

2. Clarification
 • Our exposure to different
societies and their cultures
makes us aware that there are
ways of thinking and valuing that
are different from our own.
Culture

• Cultural Relativism – what is

ethically acceptable or
unacceptable is relative to, or
that is to say, dependent on one’s
culture.
• Aesthetic differences – (e.g., Japanese
art vs. Indian art)
• Religious differences – (e.g., Buddhism
vs. Christianity)
• Ettiquette differences – (conflicting
behaviors regarding dining practices)
• Appealing on Cultural Relativism:
– Conformity on experience
– Standards on culture
– Tolerance

• So, we would not be surprised if we were to hear

someone say, “Ethics? It is simple. Just follow
whatever your culture says.”
• Problems with Cultural Relativism:

– Premised on the reality of difference

– We are in no position to render any kind of
judgment on the practices of another culture
– We are in no position to render any kind of
judgment on the practices of even our own culture
– We can maintain only the culture by following the
presumption of culture as a single, clearly-defined
substance or as something fixed and already
determined
 Thank you

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