Chapter 22 - Physics - Coordinated Science - IGCSE Cambridge

ATOMIC PHYSICS
Atomic physics
is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated
system of electrons and an atomic nucleus.
Isolated system - no exchange of energy or matter with its surrounding.

Atomic physics
It is primarily concerned with the arrangement of electrons
around the nucleus and the processes by which these
arrangements change.
Atomic nucleus
The atomic nucleus is the small, dense

region consisting of protons and neutrons
at the center of an atom.
Atomic Structure
Most scientists believed that matter is
made up of tiny, indivisible particles we call
ATOMS.
1910 - ERNEST RUTHERFORD

discovered that every ATOM has tiny central
nucleus Figure 22.01
Solar System Model of Atom
Image 22.01
Individual silicon atoms (bright spots artificially coloured by a computer) on the surface
of a silicon crystal, observed using a scanning tunneling microscope.
Scanning Tunneling Microscope
A scanning tunneling microscope (STM) is an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic
level. It was developed in 1981 by Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer of IBM.
The diamond shape indicates the
basic repeating pattern that makes
up the crystal structure of silicon.
The silicon atoms are magnified 100

million times.
4 billion atoms would fit into a length

of 1 meter.
Size of Atom 3 Sub Atomic Particles
Atom is small about 10 Neutron : neutral
nanometers (10-10 m) Proton : + charge
across . Electron : - charge
Neucleon = Neutron + Proton

Nucleus is much
smaller about 10
femtometers
(10-15 m) in diameter.
The atomic nucleus is made up of
protons and neutrons.
Protons and neutrons have similar

masses, and they account for most of
the mass of the atom.
Electrons orbit the positively charged

nucleus since its mass is lighter .
Table 22.01 Masses and Charges of Sub-Atomic Particles
Particle Position Charge / C Relative Mass / kg Relative Mass

Charge
Proton in nucleus +1.6 x 10 -19 +1 1.67 x 10 -27 1

Neutron in nucleus 0 0 1.67 x 10 -27 1
Electron orbiting -1.6 x 10 -19 -1 9.11 x 10 -31 1/1836
nucleus (approx 0)
Relative charge -
Relative mass -
Atoms and Elements
The periodic table of elements shows the order of the elements starting
with the lightest (hydrogen and helium) and working up to the heaviest.
Atoms and Elements
It is not the masses of atoms that determine the order

in which they appear, but the number of protons in the
nucleus of each atom.
Atoms and Elements
Every atom of hydrogen has one proton in its nucleus, so hydrogen is element number 1.
Every helium atom has two protons, so helium is element number 2, and so on.
4 newest elements in the periodic table
Atomic Name (old) Name (new)

Number
113 ununtrium (uut) Nihonium
ununtrium, ununpentium, ununseptium, and ununoctium
(Nh)
115 ununpentium (uup) Moscovium (Mc)
117 ununseptium (uus) Tennessine (Ts)
118 ununoctium (uuo) Oganesson (Og)
Atoms and Elements (cont.)
Each element has its own symbol consisting of one or two letters,
such as H for hydrogen and He for helium.
Sometimes the symbol for an atom may be written with two
numbers in front of it, one above the other, such as:
4
He
2
This represents an atom of helium.
4
He
2
The bottom number tell us that there are 2 protons in the
nucleus of an atom of helium, and the top number tells us
that there is a total of 4 nucleons in the nucleus of an atom
of an helium.
4
He
2
The nucleus of an atom of
We can write the general symbol
element X is written as:
of an element X with its proton
number Z , which is the number
A
of protons in the nucleus and X
nucleon number A, which is the Z
number of nucleons (protons + where Z is the proton number
neutrons) in the nucleus, as and A is the nucleon number.
follows.
A neutral atom of element X , will
also have Z electrons orbiting the
nucleus. Different elements will
have different possible combinations
of Z and A, each giving a different
type of nucleus. Each type of nucleus
is called a nuclide. (sometimes called
nuclear species )
QUESTIONS
22.01
a) Which particles make up the nucleus of an atom?
Answer: The particles protons and neutrons make up
the nucleus of an atom.
b) Which particles orbit around the nucleus?

Answer: The particles electrons orbit around the
nucleus.
QUESTIONS
22.02
In the “solar system” model of the atom, what force holds the electrons
in their orbits around the nucleus?
Answer:
It is the electrostatic attraction between the opposite
charges (proton - positive charge and electrons - negative
charge)
QUESTIONS
22.03
17
A particular atom of oxygen is represented by O.
8
a) What is the nucleon number?
17 is the nucleon number.
b) What is the proton number?
8 is the proton number.
22.04
A particular atom of lead (symbol Pb) contains 82 protons and 128
neutrons. Write down the full symbol for this atom. 210
Pb is the symbol
82
QUESTIONS
22.05
How many protons, neutrons and electrons are there in a nuetral silver
107
atom, with the symbol Ag ?
47
47 protons, 60 neutrons, 47 electrons
22.06
How many times greater is the mass of a proton than the mass of an
electron?
1840 times
Elements and Isotopes
Element - a simple substance that cannot be reduced to smaller

chemical parts. Example: Carbon is an element.
Isotope - a form of an atom that has a different atomic weight from

other forms of the same atom but the same chemical structure.
Isotopes are samples of an element with different numbers of neutrons
in their atoms. The number of protons for different isotopes of an
element does not change.
It is the proton number Z that tells us
which element an atom belongs to.
For example , a small atom with just
two protons in its nucleus (Z=2) is a
helium atom.
A much bigger atom with 92 protons
in its nucleus is a uranium atom ,
because uranium is element 92.
From Z and A you can work out a third
number, the neutron number N, which is
the number of neutrons in the nucleus.
(Z)proton number + (N)neutron number

= (A) nucleon number
Z+N=A 4
He
2
Elements and isotopes (cont.)
The atoms of all elements exist in more in one form. Example on the
table below showing three types of hydrogen atom.
Symbol for Proton number Neutron number Nucleon number
Isotope Z N A
1 1 0 1
H
1
2 1 1 2
H
1
3 1 2 3
H
1
Each has just one proton on its nucleus but they have different numbers
of neutrons (0,1,2). They are described as different isotopes of hydrogen.
Symbol for Isotope Name of Isotope
1
H
1 Protium
2
H
1 Deuterium
3
H
1 Tritium
Example on the table showing two types of uranium atom.
Symbol for Proton Neutron Nucleon
Isotope number Z number N number A
235 92 143 235
U
92
238 92 146 238
U
92
• The different isotopes of an element all have the same chemical properties,
but those with a greater number of neutrons are heavier.
• The different isotopes of an element all have the same number of protons
but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
4
Figure 22.03 shows atoms of two isotopes of helium, He (the
2
3
commonest isotope) and He (a lighter and much rarer isotope). Each
2
has two protons in the nucleus and two electrons orbiting it, but the
3
lighter isotope He has only one neutron.
2
For most chemical elements, at least one isotope is stable;
however, other isotopes may be unstable.
By this we mean that they undergo radioactive decay,

emitting radiation as they change from one element to
another.
QUESTIONS
22.07
a. What is the same for the atoms of two different isotopes of an
element? The number of protons is the same.
b. What is different for them?

The number of neutrons.
QUESTIONS
22.08
Table 22.03 lists the proton and nucleon number of six different nuclides. Copy
and complete the table by filling in the empty spaces.
Nuclide Proton Number Neutron Number Nucleon Number

(Z) (N) (A)
Nu -1 6 6 12
Nu -2 7 6 13
Nu -3 7 7 14
Nu -4 6 8 14
Nu -5 5 6 11
Nu -6 6 7 13
QUESTIONS
22.08 (continuation)
b. Which three nuclides are isotopes of one element? Nu-1, Nu-4, Nu-6
c. Which two nuclides are isotopes of another element? Nu-2, Nu-3
d. Use the Periodic Table of the elements in Figure 22.02 to identify the three
elements in Table 22.03
Boron (B), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N)

Radioactivity all around
Radioactivity seems mysterious. When it was discovered,
people became excited and doctors claimed it had health
promoting effects. They added radioactive substances to
chocolate, bread, toothpaste and water.

Radon is useful in cancer therapy.
Radon was used in some
hospitals to treat tumors by
sealing the gas in minute tubes,
and implanting these into the
In 1930s , you could buy
tumor, treating the disease in
bulbs of radioactive radon
gas like this to dissolve in situ. - (original place)
your drinking water.
Radon treatment
and
Chemotherapy
Radon treatment
uses high energy particles
to destroy cancer cells on
the affected part of the
body.
Chemotherapy
is a type of cancer
treatment that uses one or
more anti-cancer drugs to
kill cancer cells as well as
healthy cells affecting the
whole body.
Even today, some Alpine spas offer residents the chance to
breathe radioactive air in old mine tunnels.
We need to distinguish between two things :
radioactive substances and the radiation that they give out.
Many occuring substances are radioactive. They are not

very concentrated so that they do no cause a problem.
There are two ways in which radioactive substances
can cause problems:
1. Contamination - radioactive substance gets inside

us. Its radiation can harm us.
2. Irradiation - radiation of the substance they produce hits
our bodies , we say we have received a dose of radiation.
Background Radiation -
low levels of radiations.
The pie chart showing the

different sources and
percentage of radiation
received per year by
someone living in U.K.
Sources of Background Radiation
Air is radioactive . It
contains a radioactive gas
radon. This gas seeps up
from the Earth's surface
from radioactive uranium
rocks underground.
Food Drinks
Banana is considered to be one of

the most radioactive food which
contains the isotope potassium -40
Cosmic rays are high-energy

radiation, mainly originating
outside the Solar System
and even from distant
galaxies.
Sources of Artificial Radiation
Medical sources
X-rays and Gamma rays used to see inside our body.
Nuclear weapons
Nuclear industry - small amounts escape from the plant.

Detecting radiation
Henri Becquerel - French
physicist who discovered
radioactivity. He discovered
that the light emitting rock
(uranium) releases some
invisible radiation using a
photgraphic film.
Becquerel's Plate
Detecting radiation
A Geiger counter is an instrument used for detecting and measuring
ionizing radiation (beta particles and gamma rays) . Also known as a
Geiger-Mueller counter.
When a Geiger counter is
exposed to ionizing radiation :
1. The particles penetrate the tube

and collide with the gas, releasing
more electrons.
2. Positive ions exit the tube and the

negatively charged electrons
become attracted to a high-
voltage middle wire.
(cont.)
3. When the number of
electrons that build up
around the wire reaches a
threshold, it creates an
electric current.
4. This causes the temporary

closing of a switch and
generates an electric pulse
that is registered on the
meter.
The randomness of radioactive decay
If we listen to the clicks or beeps of
a Geiger counter, we may notice that
it is impossible to predict when the
next sound will come.

The randomness of radioactive decay
This is because radioactive decay is a
random process. If we study a sample
of a radioactive material, we cannot
predict when the next atom will decay.
Atoms decay randomly over time.

QUESTIONS
22.09
What is the biggest contributor to background radiation?
Radon , Thoron
22.10
Why are people who live high above sea level likely to exposed to higher
levels of background radiation?
There is less atmosphere above them to absorb cosmic rays

from space.
QUESTIONS
22.11
What fraction of our annual average dose of radiation is from artificial sources?
15 % approximately
QUESTIONS
22.12
List three sources of exposure to artificial radiation?
1) medical, 2) nuclear weapons, 3) air travel, 4) tv sets, 5)
working with radioactive materials, 6) nuclear discharges
22.13
Name two methods of detecting radiation from radioactive
materials.
Photgraphic paper , Geiger counter
The microscopic picture
Two questions we need to answer are:
1. Why are some atoms radioactive while others are not?
2. What is the nature of the radiation they produce?

The microscopic picture (cont.)
Radiation is emitted by the
nucleus of an atom . We say
that the nucleus is unstable. An
unstable nucleus emits
radiation in an attempt to
become more stable. This is
known as radioactive decay.

Radiation comes from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.
An atom is unstable (radioactive) if

these forces are unbalanced; if the
nucleus has an excess of internal
energy.
Instability of an atom's nucleus may

result from an excess of either neutrons
or protons.
Fortunately, most of the

atoms around us have
stable nuclei. Long ago, the
level of background
radiation was much higher
than it is today.
Three types of radiation
Name Symbol Made of Mass Charge Speed /m/s
Alpha α 2 protons + 2 approx. (mass of proton) x 4 +2 ~ 3x 107

neutrons
Beta β an electron approx.(mass of proton) / -1 ~ 2.9 x 108

1840
Gamma γ photon of 0 0 3 x 108

electromagnetic
radiation
Table 22.04: Three types of radiation produced by naturally occuring radioactive substances.
Alpha and beta are particles while gamma is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
Three types of radiation
There are three types of radiation emitted by radioactive

substances.
These are named after the first three letters of the Greek
alphabet, alpha (α), beta (β) and gamma (γ).
Alpha and beta are particles; gamma is a form of electromagnetic

radiation.
• An alpha particle (α-particle) is
made up of two neutrons. Because
it contains protons it is positively
charged.
• A beta particle (β-particle) is an

electron. It is not one of the
electrons that orbit the nucleus - it
comes from inside the nucleus. It is
negatively charged, and its mass is
much less than that of an alpha
particle.
A gamma ray (γ-ray) is a form of
electromagnetic radiation. We
can think of it as a wave with a
very short wavelength (similar to
an X-ray, but even more
energetic). Alternatively, we can
picture it as a “photon”, a
particle of electromagnetic
energy.
An atom of a radioactive
substance emits either an alpha
particle or a beta particle. In
addition, it may emit some
energy in the form of a gamma
ray.
The gamma ray is usually emitted
at the same time as the alpha or
beta, but it may be emitted some
time later.
Alpha particles have a much
greater mass than beta particles,
so they travel more slowly. Gamma
rays travel at the speed light.
When an atom of a radioactive
substance decays, it becomes an
atom of another element. This is
because, in alpha and beta decay,
the number of protons in the
nucleus changes.
QUESTIONS
22.14
a.) Which radiation from a radioactive substance is positively charge?
alpha particle
b.) Which radiation from a radioactive substance is negatively charge?
beta particle
22.15 What type of sub-atomic particle is a Beta particle?

electron
QUESTIONS
22.16 Which type of radiaiton is a form of electromagnetic radiation?

gamma ray
22.17 Which radiation travels fastest, alpha, beta or gamma?

gamma ray
Which radiation travels most slowly?

alpha particle
Energy released
Radioactive substances release energy when they decay.

Before the decay, this energy is stored in the nucleus of the
atom.
Energy released
When it is released, it is in two forms:
• An alpha or beta particle is fast moving. The nucleus that has emitted it recoils.
Both particles have kinetic energy.
Alpha particle
Energy released (cont)
Beta particle
Energy released (cont.)
A gamma ray transfers energy as electromagnetic radiation.
Penetrating power
When physicists were trying to understand the nature of
radioactivity, they noticed that radiation can pass through
solid materials.
Different types of radiation can penetrate different thickness of materials.
Alpha particles are the most easily absorbed. They can travel about 5cm in air before
they are absorbed. They are absorbed by a thin sheet of paper.
Beta particles can travel fairly easily through air or paper. But they are absorbed by a
few millimiters of metal.
Gamma radiation is the most penetrating. It takes several centimeters of a dense
metal like lead, or several meters of concrete, to absorb most of the gamma.
Ionisation
When radiation passes through air , it may interact with air molecules, knocking electrons
from them, so that the air molecules become charged.
Ionisation
We say that that the air molecules have become ionised. Because the radiation from
radioactive substances causes ionisation of the materials that absorb it, if it is often known as
ionising radiation.
Ionisation
The relative ionising effects are as follows:
• alpha particles are the most ionising because and gamma radiation is the least ionising.
SAFETY FIRST!!!
Safe handling
Knowing about the radiation
produced by radioactive
materials tells us how to
handle them as safely as
possible.
Safe handling (cont.)
Radioactive sources should be stored
in a container that will absorb as
much as possible of the radiation
coming from them.
Lead is a good material for this, as it
is a strong absorber of all three types
of radiation.
Safe handling (cont)
In the image shows a storage box
used for keeping radioactive sources
in a school laboratory. Each source is
kept in its own lead-lined
compartment, and the whole box
should be stored in a metal cabinet
with a hazard warning sign.

Safe handling (cont)
When sources are not in their
protective container, they should be
handled carefully. To avoid
contamination, tongs or forceps can be
used so that the user does not come
into direct contact with the source.
During any experiment, the user
should stand at a safe distance from
the source.
Effects of radioisotopes on cells
Safe handling of radioisotopes

requires an understanding of
how radiation affects cells.
1. An intense dose of radiation
causes a lot of ionization in a
cell, which can kill the cell. This
is what happens when
someone suffers radiation
burns. The cells affected simply
die, as if they had been burnt.

2. If the DNA in the cell nucleus is

damaged, the mechanisms that
control the cell may break down.
The cell may divide uncontrollably
and a tumour forms. This is how
radiation can cause cancer.
3. If the affected cell is a gamete

(a sperm or egg cell), the
damaged DNA of its genes
may be passed on to future
generations. This is how
radiation can produce genetic
mutations.
Effects of radioisotopes on cells (cont)
Occasionally, a mutation can be beneficial to the offspring,
but more usually it is harmful. A fertilised egg cell may not
develop at all, or the baby have some form of genetic
disorder.
We are least likely to be harmed by alpha radiation coming
from a source outside our bodies.
This is because the radiation is entirely absorbed by the layer

of dead skin cells on the outside of our bodies (and by our
clothes).
However, if an alpha source gets inside us, it can be very
damaging, because its radiation is highly ionising.
That is why radon (noble gas
formed from radium) and
thoron (radon isotope) gases
are so dangerous. We breathe
them into our lungs, where
they irradiate us from the
inside. The result may be lung
cancer.
QUESTIONS
22.18 Name three types of ionising radiation?
alpha, beta, gamma
22.19 Why are gamma rays undeflected in a magnetic field?
gamma rays do not have charge. They are uncharged.
22.20
a.) Which type of radiaton from a radioactive source is the most highly
ionising? Alpha particle
b.) What does this tell you about how easily it is absorbed?
Alpha particle is the most easily absorbed.
Deflecting radiation
How can we tell the difference
between these three types of
radiation? One method is to see how
they behave in electric and magnetic
fields.
Because they have opposite
charges, alpha and beta particles
are deflected in opposite
directions when they pass
through an electric field.

Radioactive decay equations
We can represent any radioactive decay by an equation using the notation
explained in Section P22.01.
Here is an example of an equation for alpha decay:
241 237 4
95
Am
93
Np + 2
He + energy
Notice that the numbers in this equation must balance, because we cannot
lose mass or charge. So:
nulceon numbers 241 237 4
proton numbers 95 93 2
Radioactive decay equations
This represents the decay of americium -241, the isotope used in smoke
detectors. It emits an alpha particle (represented as a helium nucleus) and
becomes an isotope of uranium.
Radioactive decay equations (cont)
Here is an example of an equation for beta decay:
14 14 0
6
C
7
N + -1
e + energy
This is the decay that is used in radiocarbon dating. A carbon -14 nucleus
decays to become a nitrogen -14 nucleus. (the beta particle, an electron, is
0
represented by e ).
-1
Radioactive decay equations (cont)
If we could see inside the nucleus, we would see that a single neutron has
decayed to become a proton. So:
1 1 0
0
n + p + e
1 -1
For each of these two beta decay equations, you should be able to see that
the nucleon numbers and proton numbers are balanced. We say that , in
radioactive decay, nucleon number and proton number are conserved (not
wasted).
Radioactive decay
Continuous transformation of
unstable (radioactive) atom
which losses energy by
emitting ionising particles and
radiation, transforming the
parent nuclide atom into a
different daughter nuclide (to
become a stable atom).
QUESTIONS
22.21 The equation below represents the decay of a polonium nucleus to
form a lead nucleus. An alpha particle is emitted.
a. Copy and complete the equation.
b. Show that proton numbers are equal on each side of the equation.
c. Show that nucleon number are equal on each side of the equation.
210 206 4
84
Po
82
Pb + 2
He + energy
Radioactive decay
The problem was that uranium
decays very slowly, so that, even
if Becquerel had carried on with
his experiments for a thousand
years, he would not have noticed
any decrease in the activity of his
samples.
Radioactive decay (cont)
The half-life of a radioactive

substance is the average time taken
for half of the atoms in a sample to
decay.
Uranium decays slowly because it

has a very long half-life.
We cannot say when the
substance will have entirely
decayed, we have to think of
another way of describing the
rate of decay as shown on the
decay graph. The curve of this
shape (exponential decay
graph).
Decay Graph
Amount of undecayed substance

Different radioactive
substances decay at different
rates some much faster than

longer half-life
others. A steep graph shows
shorter half-life
that the substance has a short
half-life.
Time
Explaining half life
After one half-life, half of the
atoms in a radioactive sample have
decayed. However, this does not
mean that all of the atoms will
have decayed after two half-lives.
From the graph, you can see that
one quarter will still remain after
two half lives. Why is this?
Decay Graph
Explaining half life (cont.)
Figure below shows one way of thinking about what is going on. Imagine we start
with sa sample of 100 undecayed atoms of a radioactive substance (white circles in
figure a). They decay randomly (black circles in Figures b, c and d) - each undecayed
atom has a 50:50 change of decaying in the course of one half-life.
Explaining half life (cont)
This is how we describe the decay:
a. At the start, there are 100

undecayed atoms.
b. After one half- life, a random

selection of 50 atoms has
decayed.
c. During the next half-life, a random

selection of half of the remaining 50
atoms decay leaving 25 undecayed.
d. During the third half-life, half of the

remaining atoms decay, leaving 12 or
13. (Of course, you cannot have half an
atom.)
We cannot measure the numbers of
atoms in a sample. Instead, we
measure the count rate using a Geiger
counter or some other detector. We
might also determine the activity of a
sample.
This is the number of atoms
that decay each second, and is
measured in becquerels (Bq).

An activity of 1 Bq is one
decay per second. The count
rate and activity both
decrease following the same
pattern as the number of
undecayed atoms.
Worked Example P22.01 Step 1: Calculate the number of half-lives in 12
years.
A sample of radioactive element X 12 years / 3 years = 4 half-lives
has an activity of 240 Bq. If the half- Step 2: Calculate the activity after 1,2,3 and 4
half lives (divide by 2 each time).
life of X is 3 years, what will its
initial activity = 240 Bq
activity be after 12 years? activity after 1 half-life = 120 Bq
activity after 2 half-lives = 60 Bq
So the activity of the sample has fallen to 15Bq

after 12 years.
Worked Example P22.01 Another way to do this. We have found
that 12 years is 4 half lives, so we need
A sample of radioactive element X
to divide the initial activity by 2 4 which
has an activity of 240 Bq. If the half-
is 16, giving:
life of X is 3 years, what will its
240Bq
activity be after 12 years? = 15 Bq
16
QUESTIONS
22.22
In an answer, a student wrote 'The half-life of the radioactive substance is
the time taken for half of the atoms in a sample decay'. What word is
missing form that definition of half-life? average
22.23 A sample of a radioactive substance contains 200 undecayed atoms.

How many will remain after 3 half-lives? 25
QUESTIONS
22.24 The half-life of radioisotope X is 10 days. A sample gives an initial
count rate of 440 counts per second. What will be the count rate after 30
days?
440 counts / 2 = 220 counts (1st half-life - 10 days)
220 counts / 2 = 110 counts (2nd half-life - 20 days)
110 counts / 2 = 55 counts (3rd half-life - 30 days)

QUESTIONS
22.25 Radioisotope Y has a half-life of 2,000 years. How long will it take
the activity of a sample of Y to decrease to one-eight of it's initial value?
2,000 years x 1 first half life 1/2
2,000 years x 2 second half life 1/4
2,000 years x 3 third half life 1/8

Measuring a half-life
Figure 22.10 shows how the
half-life of a particular
substance, protactinium -234,
is measured in the lab. After
the bottle has been shaken, the
upper layer of liquid contains
protactinium which emits beta
radiation as it decays.
Measuring a half-life (cont.)
Because it half-life is 70 s,
the count rate decreases
quickly. The number of
counts in successive intervals
of 10 s is recorded. A graph
plotted of number of counts
in each interval against time,
as in figure 22.11.
Using radioisotopes
stable
Any element comes in several forms or
isotopes. Some may be stable, but
others are unstable - other words, the
are radioactive. For example, carbon
12 13
has two stable isotopes C
14 6 6
and
C unstable
but C is an unstable isotope.
6
Unstable (radioactive) isotopes are
known as radioisotopes.
Using radioisotopes
Four uses of radioisotopes:
1. uses related to their different penetrating
powers
2. uses related to the damage their radiation
causes to living cells
3. uses related to the fact that we can detect
tiny quantities of radioactive substances
4. uses related to radioactive decay and half-
life.
Penetrating Powers
SMOKE DETECTORS
Americium-241, which use the
ionizing radiation of the alpha
particles to cause and then
measure changes in the ionization
of the air immediately around the
detector. A change due to smoke in
the air will cause the alarm to
sound.
Penetrating Powers
THICKNESS MEASUREMENT
Penetrating Powers
MEDICAL DIAGNOSIS
Computed Tomography (CT) Scan Positron-Emission Tomography (PET)

Radioactive tracers and dyes (substance used to add color) also used to be able to accurately map a
specific area or system, which may use a radioactive isotope like Technetium-99 to identify areas of
the heart and surrounding arteries with diminished blood flow.
Penetrating Powers
FAULT DETECTION
Uses related to Cell Damage Radiation Therapy
Radionuclides are also used to directly
treat illnesses, such as radioactive
iodine, which is taken up almost
exclusively by the thyroid, to treat
cancer or hyperthyroidism
Uses related to Cell Damage
The Radura is the international
symbol denoting that a food
product has been irradiated.

Food irradiation is the process of using radioactive sources to sterilize foodstuffs.
The radiation works by killing bacteria and viruses, or eliminating their ability to reproduce by severely
damaging their DNA or RNA. Since neutron radiation is not used, the remaining food doesn’t become
radioactive itself, leaving it safe to eat. This method is also used to sterilize food packaging, medical devices,
and manufacturing parts.

Uses related to Detectability
Uses related to Detectability
Uses related to Radioactive Decay
Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a
method for determining the age of an object containing organic material by using
the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope of carbon. All living things
contain carbon.
Carbon Dating
All living things contain carbon. Plants get this from atmospheric carbon dioxide which they use in
photosynthesis. Plant eating animals get it from the plants they eat to build their bodies. Meat eating animals
get it from prey.
When a living organism dies, the carbon-14 in its body decays. As time passes, the amount remaining
decreases. If we can measure the amount remaining, we can work out when the organism was alive.
Uses related to Radioactive Decay
Radiocarbon dating of rocks.
Geologist use a radioactive dating technique to find the age of some rocks. Many rocks contain radioactive
isotope Potassium -40 which decays by beta emission to a stable isotope Argon (gas).
Radiocarbon dating of rocks.
Geologists take a sample and measure the relative amounts of argon and potassium. The greater the
proportion of argon, the older the rock must be.
QUESTIONS
22.26 Why should beta radiation not be suitable for use in a smoke
detector?
Beta radiation is less easily absorbed compare with alpha
22.27 Why must gamma radiation be used for inspecting a welded pipe?
The radiation must penetrate thick metal. Alpha and beta radiation
will be completely absorbed by the metal.
QUESTIONS
22.28 When medical equipment is to be sterilised, it is first sealed in a

plastic wrapper. Why does this not absorb the radiation used?
The plastic is too thin to absorb the gamma radiation.
22.29 Why must engineers shown in image 22.06 use a source of gamma
radiation?
Deep penetration is needed to the ground.
Good Luck to all !!!
Do your best always.

Chapter 22 - Physics - Coordinated Science - IGCSE Cambridge

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Chapter 22 - Physics - Coordinated Science - IGCSE Cambridge

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ATOMIC PHYSICS

Isolated system - no exchange of energy or matter with its surrounding.

The atomic nucleus is the small, dense

1910 - ERNEST RUTHERFORD

The silicon atoms are magnified 100

4 billion atoms would fit into a length

Neucleon = Neutron + Proton

Protons and neutrons have similar

Electrons orbit the positively charged

Particle Position Charge / C Relative Mass / kg Relative Mass

Proton in nucleus +1.6 x 10 -19 +1 1.67 x 10 -27 1

It is not the masses of atoms that determine the order

Atomic Name (old) Name (new)

b) Which particles orbit around the nucleus?

Element - a simple substance that cannot be reduced to smaller

Isotope - a form of an atom that has a different atomic weight from

(Z)proton number + (N)neutron number

Symbol for Isotope Name of Isotope

By this we mean that they undergo radioactive decay,

b. What is different for them?

Nuclide Proton Number Neutron Number Nucleon Number

c. Which two nuclides are isotopes of another element? Nu-2, Nu-3

Boron (B), Carbon (C), Nitrogen (N)

Radioactivity seems mysterious. When it was discovered,

people became excited and doctors claimed it had health

promoting effects. They added radioactive substances to

chocolate, bread, toothpaste and water.

Many occuring substances are radioactive. They are not

1. Contamination - radioactive substance gets inside

The pie chart showing the

Banana is considered to be one of

Cosmic rays are high-energy

Nuclear industry - small amounts escape from the plant.

1. The particles penetrate the tube

2. Positive ions exit the tube and the

4. This causes the temporary

If we listen to the clicks or beeps of

a Geiger counter, we may notice that

it is impossible to predict when the

next sound will come.

This is because radioactive decay is a

random process. If we study a sample

of a radioactive material, we cannot

predict when the next atom will decay.

Atoms decay randomly over time.

There is less atmosphere above them to absorb cosmic rays

1. Why are some atoms radioactive while others are not?

2. What is the nature of the radiation they produce?

Radiation is emitted by the

nucleus of an atom . We say

that the nucleus is unstable. An

unstable nucleus emits

become more stable. This is

known as radioactive decay.

An atom is unstable (radioactive) if

Instability of an atom's nucleus may

Fortunately, most of the

Alpha α 2 protons + 2 approx. (mass of proton) x 4 +2 ~ 3x 107

Beta β an electron approx.(mass of proton) / -1 ~ 2.9 x 108

Gamma γ photon of 0 0 3 x 108

There are three types of radiation emitted by radioactive

Alpha and beta are particles; gamma is a form of electromagnetic

• A beta particle (β-particle) is an

22.15 What type of sub-atomic particle is a Beta particle?