Digestive System (Student)

The Digestive
System
Human Anatomy & Physiology

THE MACRONUTRIENTS
Human Anatomy & Physiology The Digestive System

THE MACRONUTRIENTS

THE MACRONUTRIENTS

DIGESTION
• the breaking down of food into

molecules that are small enough
to enter the body cells
Unit 14 – The Digestive System

GASTROENTEROLOGY
• medical specialty that deals with

the structure, function, diagnosis,
and treatment of diseases of the
stomach and intestines

PROCTOLOGY
• medical specialty that deals with

the diagnosis and treatment of
disorders of the rectum and anus

Divisions of the Digestive System
1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)

• or “alimentary tube”
• continuous tube that extends from
the mouth to the anus, about 5 to 7
meters long
• contains food from the time it is
eaten until it is digested, absorbed
or eliminated from the body

1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)

• consists of the mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, and large intestine

2. Accessory Organs
• include the teeth, tongue, salivary
glands, liver, gallbladder, &
pancreas
• generally secrete substances into
the GI tract or perform other
functions

Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion
• or “eating”
• taking of food & fluids into the
mouth

2. Secretion
• releasing water, acid, buffers, &
enzymes into the lumen of the GI
tract
• walls of GIT & the accessory
organs release a total of 7 liters of
secretions

3. Mixing & propulsion

• churning & pushing food through
the GI tract due to contraction &
relaxation of smooth muscle in its
walls
• motility: refers to the ability of the
GIT to mix & move material along
its length

3. Mixing & propulsion

• peristalsis: refers to the waves of
contraction w/c propel substances
along the GI tract

4. Digestion
• mechanical digestion: physically
prepares food for chemical
digestion, by breaking it into
smaller pieces (e.g. chewing)
• chemical digestion: is a series of
steps in which complex food
molecules are broken down to their
chemical building blocks

5. Absorption
• is the transport of digested end
products from the lumen of the GI
tract into the blood & lymphatic
capillaries located in the wall of the
canal

6. Defecation
• the process in which wastes,
indigestible substances, bacteria,
cells shed from the lining of the
GIT, & digested materials that were
not absorbed, leave the body
• feces = refers to the eliminated or
defecated material

Layers of the GIT
1. Mucosa
• the inner lining of the GIT
• has 2 primary sub-layers: (a) a
lining epithelium & (b) muscularis
mucosae

Layers of the GIT
1. Mucosa
• lining epithelium: the layer w/c is in
direct contact with the contents of
the GIT; secretes mucus, which
lubricates the passage of food; in
the stomach & small intestine, also
releases enzymes

Layers of the GIT
1. Mucosa
• muscularis mucosae: a thin layer of
smooth muscle whose contraction
creates folds in the mucosa that
increases surface area for
digestion & absorption

Layers of the GIT
1. Mucosa
• lymphatic nodules : small masses
of lymphatic tissue found beneath
the mucosa of the GIT; help protect
against pathogens

Layers of the GIT
2. Submucosa
• is made of areolar connective
tissue with many blood vessels &
lymphatic vessels.
• binds the mucosa with the
muscularis
• contains glands w/c secrete
substances into GI tract

Layers of the GIT
2. Submucosa
• Meissner’s plexus: or “submucosal
plexus”; the nerve networks in the
submucosa w/c innervate the
mucosa to regulate secretions;
parasympathetic impulses increase
secretions, whereas sympathetic
impulses decrease secretions

Layers of the GIT
3. Muscularis
• thick layer of muscle
• is mostly smooth muscle but part
skeletal in esophagus & anal
sphincter muscles
• typically contains 2 layers of
smooth muscle: (a) an inner,
circular layer & (b) an outer,
longitudinal layer

Layers of the GIT
3. Muscularis
• helps break down food, mix it, &
move it through the GI tract
• Auerbach’s plexus = or “myenteric
plexus”; the nerve networks in the
muscularis w/c control the strength
& frequency of muscular
contractions

Layers of the GIT
4. Serosa
• outermost layer
• above the diaphragm: made of
fibrous connective tissue
• below the diaphragm: made of
simple squamous epithelium; also
called visceral peritoneum

PERITONEUM
• the largest serous membrane of

the body
• contains large folds that weave
bet. the viscera, bind the organs to
one another & to the walls of the
abdominal cavity

PERITONEUM
• also contains blood vessels,

lymphatic vessels, & nerves that
supply the abdominal organs

PERITONEUM
• divided into:
parietal peritoneum = lines the wall
of the abdominopelvic cavity
visceral peritoneum = covers
some of the organs in the
abdominopelvic cavity & is their
serosa

PERITONEUM
• peritoneal cavity : the slit-like space

containing lubricating serous fluid
that is bet. the parietal & visceral
peritoneum
• peritoneal fluid : the serous fluid
w/c lubricates the GI tract, allowing it
to slide against other organs

PERITONEUM
• greater omentum :
the largest peritoneal fold
is a “fatty apron” that drapes over
the intestines

PERITONEUM
• greater omentum :
has large amounts of adipose
tissue, contributing to the
characteristic “beer belly” seen in
some overweight individuals
also has lymph nodes that
contribute macrophages & plasma
cells to fight infections

PERITONEUM
• mesentery :
a fan-shaped fold of peritoneum
that binds the small intestine to
the posterior abdominal wall

MOUTH
• also called oral cavity

• is a mucosa-lined cavity whose
boundaries are the lips anteriorly,
the cheeks laterally, the palate
superiorly, & the tongue inferiorly

Structures of the Mouth
1. Oral orifice
• the anterior, external opening of the
mouth
2. Lips & cheeks

• during chewing, they help keep
food between the upper & lower
teeth; they also assist in speech

3. Labial frenulum
• a midline fold of mucous membrane
that connects the internal aspect of
each lip to the gum
4. Hard palate
• the bony roof of the mouth w/c forms
a rigid surface against w/c the tongue
forces food during chewing

5. Soft palate
• the muscular roof of the mouth; is a
mobile flap that rises to close off the
nasopharynx during swallowing,
preventing entry of swallowed foods
& liquids into the nasal cavity
6. Uvula
• a projection hanging from the soft
palate; rises w/ the soft palate

7. Tongue
• an accessory organ composed of
skeletal muscle, covered w/ mucous
membrane
• functions: manipulates food for
chewing & swallowing, shapes food,
& senses taste; is also impt for
speech

8. Lingual frenulum
• fold of mucous membrane in the
midline of the undersurface of the
tongue that limits the movement of
the tongue posteriorly

9. Salivary glands
• 3 pairs of accessory organs w/c
release their secretions into ducts
emptying into the oral cavity
a) parotid glands
largest of the salivary glands
located inferior & anterior to
the ears

9. Salivary glands
b) submandibular glands
are found in the floor of the
mouth; they are medial &
partly inferior to the mandible
c) sublingual glands
located beneath the tongue &
superior to the
submandibular glands

9. Salivary glands
• saliva: fluid secreted by the salivary
glands; consists mainly of water
(99.5%) and solutes, including:
 salivary amylase = enzyme that
begins digestion of starch
 mucus = lubricates food
 lysozyme = enzyme that kills
bacteria

9. Salivary glands
• salivation: refers to the process of
secreting saliva; controlled by the
autonomic nervous system:
 PNS   salivation
 SNS  no salivation; dryness of
mouth

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10. Teeth
• accessory organs located in the bony
sockets of the mandible & maxillae
• fxn: mastication or chewing
• gingiva:
 plural: gingivae
 or “gums”; cover tooth sockets
& help to anchor teeth

10. Teeth
• periodontal membrane:
 fibrous connective tissue that
lines the gums & anchors the
teeth to the underlying bone

10. Teeth
• has 3 major external regions:
a) crown
visible portion above the
gums
b) root
the part embedded in the
sockets

10. Teeth
c) neck
is the constricted junction of
the crown and root near the
gum line

10. Teeth
• has the ff. parts:
a) dentin
forms the majority of the root
consists of a calcified
connective tissue that gives
the tooth its basic shape &
rigidity

10. Teeth
b) enamel
covers the dentin of the
crown
the hardest substance in the
body
is made of calcium salts
protects the teeth from the
wear and tear of chewing

10. Teeth
b) enamel
serves as a barrier against
acids that can easily dissolve
the dentin

10. Teeth
c) cementum
covers the dentin of the root
a bonelike substance that
attaches the root to the
periodontal membrane

10. Teeth
d) pulp cavity
a space in the center of the
tooth w/c is filled w/ pulp
e) pulp
connective tissue containing
blood vessels, nerves, &
lymphatic vessels

10. Teeth
f) root canals
narrow extensions of the
pulp cavity that run through
the root of the tooth
are channels for nerves &
blood vessels

10. Teeth
• there are two sets of teeth:
a) deciduous teeth
or “primary teeth” or “milk
teeth” or “baby teeth”
20 teeth that begin to erupt
through the gums at about 6
mos. of age, & is usually
complete by the age of 2 yrs

10. Teeth
• two sets of teeth:
b) permanent teeth
32 teeth that erupt between the
age of 6 & adulthood

10. Teeth
• types of teeth:
a) incisors
closest to the midline
chisel-shaped
adapted for cutting food

10. Teeth
b) cuspids
or “canines”
located next to the
incisors
have a single pointed surface
(or cusp) to tear & shred food

10. Teeth
c) premolars
have two cusps & grind food
d) molars
have 3 or more blunt cusps to
crush & grind food

Digestion in the Mouth
Mastication
• promotes mechanical digestion in
w/c food is manipulated by the
tongue, ground by the teeth, &
mixed with saliva
• bolus = soft, flexible, easily
swallowed mass resulting from
mastication

Salivary Amylase
• promotes chemical digestion
• enzyme secreted by the salivary
glands w/c initiates the breakdown
of starch
• splits starch into maltose

Salivary Amylase
• continues to act for about 1 hour
until inactivated by the stomach
acids

Lingual lipase
• also promotes chemical digestion
• enzyme secreted by the lingual
glands in the tongue
• becomes activated in the acidic
environment of the stomach & thus
starts to work after food is
swallowed

Lingual lipase
• breaks down dietary triglycerides
(fats and oils) into fatty acids &
diglycerides

PHARYNX
• a funnel – shaped muscular tube

lined w/ mucous membrane
• consists of 3 segments but only
muscular contraction of the
oropharynx & laryngopharynx
propel food to the esophagus

ESOPHAGUS
• muscular tube lined w/ stratified

squamous epithelium that lies
posterior to the trachea
• begins at the end of the
laryngopharynx, passes through
the mediastinum & diaphragm, &
connects to the superior aspect of
the stomach

ESOPHAGUS
• transports food to the stomach &

secretes mucus
• upper esophageal sphincter (UES):
consists of skeletal muscle
regulates the movement of food
from the pharynx into the
esophagus

ESOPHAGUS
• lower esophageal sphincter (UES):

consists of smooth muscle
regulates the movement of food
from the esophagus into the
stomach

Deglutition
• or “swallowing”
• refers to the movement of bolus
from the mouth to the stomach
• involves the mouth, pharynx, and
esophagus, and is helped by saliva
& mucus

Deglutition
• 3 stages of deglutition:
a) voluntary stage
bolus is forced to the back of
the mouth and into the
oropharynx by the movement of
the tongue upward & backward
against the palate

Deglutition
b) pharyngeal stage
is involuntary
the tongue rises against the
palate & closes the nasopharynx
the uvula & palate seal off the
nasal cavity
the epiglottis covers the larynx

Deglutition
breathing is temporarily
interrupted
bolus is moved from
oropharynx to laryngopharynx
& into esophagus

Deglutition
c) esophageal stage
is also involuntary
begins when the upper
esophageal sphincter relaxes &
bolus enters esophagus from
the laryngopharynx
bolus is pushed along the
esophagus through peristalsis

Deglutition
lower esophageal sphincter

relaxes to allow bolus to enter
stomach; afterwards, it contracts
to prevent bolus from splashing
back into esophagus

STOMACH
• is a J-shaped enlargement of the GI

tract directly inferior to the
diaphragm in the upper left
quadrant of the abdominal cavity
• connects the esophagus to the
duodenum, the first part of the
small intestine

STOMACH
• serves as a mixing chamber &
holding reservoir for food before its
release into the small intestine
• when empty, its mucosa lies in
large wrinkles or folds called rugae,
w/c flatten out as the stomach is
filled & permit expansion of the
lining without tearing it

STOMACH
• has 4 main regions:

a) Cardia
surrounds the superior opening
of the stomach
b) Fundus
the rounded portion superior &
to the left of the cardia

STOMACH
c) Body
large, central portion of the
stomach, located inferior to the
fundus
d) Pylorus
narrow, most inferior region
is the site of most of the gastric
digestion

STOMACH
• has 2 curvatures:
a) Lesser curvature
the concave, medial surface of
the stomach
b) Greater curvature
the convex, lateral surface of the
stomach

STOMACH
• has 2 sphincter muscles:

a) cardiac sphincter
or lower esophageal sphincter
guards the opening of the
stomach from the esophagus

STOMACH
when contracted, prevents reflux

of gastric contents into the
esophagus
when relaxed, bolus is allowed to
enter the stomach

STOMACH
b) pyloric sphincter
guards the opening of the pyloric
portion of the stomach into the
duodenum
when contracted, food is kept in
the stomach for temporary
storage & digestion

STOMACH
when relaxed, a small quantity of

material is emptied into the
duodenum at appropriate
intervals

STOMACH
• epithelial cells of its mucosa extend

downward & form columns of
secretory cells called gastric glands
• secretions of the gastric glands,
collectively called gastric juice, flow
into the gastric pits & then into the
lumen of the stomach

STOMACH
• the gastric glands comprise of

different cells, namely:
a) Mucous cells
are exocrine gland cells
secrete mucus w/c forms a
protective barrier bet. the
mucosa & the gastric secretions
in the lumen

STOMACH
b) Chief cells
are also exocrine gland cells
secrete pepsinogen & gastric
lipase
pepsinogen = an inactive enzyme
that becomes pepsin (the active
enzyme)
gastric lipase = breaks down fats

STOMACH
c) Parietal cells
produce hydrochloric acid (HCl),
that creates a gastric pH of 2.0,
which can kill microbes, activate
pepsinogen into pepsin (active
enzyme) & activate lingual lipase

STOMACH
also secrete intrinsic factor, the

substance involved in the
absorption of vitamin B12 (can
cause pernicious anemia if not
sufficiently secreted)

STOMACH
d) G cells
secrete gastrin, a substance w/c
enters the bloodstream &
stimulates secretion of gastric
juice, motility of GI tract, &
relaxation of pyloric sphincter
are endocrine gland cells
gastrin is not part of gastric juice

LM 180x
Digestion & Absorption
in the Stomach
Mixing Waves
• the gentle, rippling peristaltic
movements of the stomach’s
muscularis
• activated when food (bolus) enters
the stomach (due to the release of
gastrin)

in the Stomach
• these waves macerate the food &
mix it with saliva & gastric juice
• salivary amylase = continues to
digest starch until inactivated by
stomach acid
• lingual amylase = is activated by
HCl & breaks down triglycerides
into fatty acids & diglycerides

in the Stomach
Gastric juice
• secreted by the gastric glands in
small amounts as a
parasympathetic response at the
sight or smell of food

in the Stomach
• gastrin = released by the G cells in
response to food (bolus) in the
stomach; stimulates the secretion
of greater amounts of gastric juice
by the gastric glands to aid in
chemical digestion

in the Stomach
• HCl = activates pepsinogen into
pepsin; HCl release is triggered by
any of the ff. substances:
 Acetylcholine = released by PNS
neurons
 Histamine = released by mast
cells of stomach
 Gastrin

in the Stomach
• proteins = are chemically digested
into peptides by the enzyme pepsin
• triglycerides = are chemically
digested into fatty acids &
monoglycerides by the enzyme
gastric lipase

in the Stomach
Gastric Absorption
• epithelial cells of the stomach are
impermeable - so little absorption
occurs
• mucous cells of the stomach
absorb some water, ions, fatty
acids, alcohol & certain drugs

in the Stomach
Chyme
• the soupy liquid which is the
product of stomach digestion
• is a mixture of macerated food,
saliva, gastric juice & other
substances

in the Stomach
Gastric emptying
• refers to the release of chyme in
small amounts through the partially
closed pyloric sphincter into the
duodenum
• influenced by gastrin
• is completed within 2-4 hrs after
eating a meal

PANCREAS
• primary enzyme-producing gland of

the digestive system
• has both exocrine & endocrine
functions
• is located along the upper
quadrants of the abdomen

PANCREAS
• about 6 inches (15 cm) in length

• the head of the pancreas is located
within the curve of the duodenum;
the tail touches the spleen; the
body lies behind the stomach

PANCREAS
• Acini
or “acinar cells”
secretory units that comprise the
exocrine part of the pancreas
empty into the pancreatic duct
produces about 1 to 1.5 L of
pancreatic juice per day

PANCREAS
• Pancreatic duct
or “duct of Wirsung”
where pancreatic juice would pass
going to the duodenum
unites with the common bile duct
from the liver & gallbladder, forming
the common tube to the duodenum

PANCREAS
• Pancreatic juice: clear, colorless
liquid that consists of the following:
a) Bicarbonate ions
give pancreatic juice a slightly
alkaline pH (7.1 to 8.2);
neutralizes stomach acid &
creates the optimal environment
for the activity of enzymes in the
small intestine

PANCREAS
b) Pancreatic amylase
enzyme that breaks down starch
into maltose
c) Pancreatic lipase
enzyme that breaks down
triglycerides into fatty acids &
monoglycerides

PANCREAS
d) Trypsinogen
an inactive enzyme that
becomes trypsin once activated
by enterokinase in the small
intestine
trypsin breaks down proteins
into peptides & activates other
protein-digesting enzymes

PANCREAS
e) Chymotrypsinogen
an inactive enzyme that
becomes chymotrypsin once
activated by trypsin
chymotrypsin breaks down
proteins into peptides

PANCREAS
• the release of pancreatic juice into the
small intestine is influenced by the
hormones, secretin & cholecystokinin

LIVER
• 2nd largest organ of the body

• largest gland of the body
• ave. wt.: 1.4 kg
• located in the RUQ of the abdomen,
beneath the diaphragm

Structures of the Liver
1. Lobules
• functional units that make up the
lobes of the liver
2. Hepatocytes
• specialized epithelial cells
comprising a lobule; the liver cells
primarily responsible for secreting
bile

2. Hepatocytes
• bile:
 a bitter-tasting, alkaline,
yellow-green fluid containing
bile salts, cholesterol,
bilirubin, electrolytes & water
 an average of 1000 mL of bile
is produced by the liver per
day

2. Hepatocytes
• bile:
 the major function of bile,
specifically its bile salts, is fat
emulsification (breaking down
large fat globules into smaller
ones to increase surface area
for fat digestion where
enzymes can act upon)

3. Sinusoids
• highly permeable capillaries found
in each liver lobule
• receive blood from both the hepatic
artery and hepatic portal vein, & it
is with this mixture of blood that
the hepatocytes carry out their
functions.

4. Central veins
• venules that occupy the center of
each liver lobule
• where the sinusoids empty their
blood
• unite to form the hepatic veins,
which take blood out of the liver to
the inferior vena cava

5. Kuppfer cells
• phagocytes present in the
sinusoids w/c destroy worn-out
blood cells, bacteria, & other
foreign matter

BILIARY TRACT
• a pathway of several ducts which

transport bile from the liver to the
duodenum of the small intestine
• also includes the gallbladder

GALLBLADDER
• a pear-shaped, hollow, sac-like

organ composed largely of smooth
muscle
• located on the RUQ of the
abdomen, on the undersurface of
the right lobe of the liver

GALLBLADDER
• primary purpose is to store &

concentrate bile (about 30 to 50 mL)
• releases its stored bile when
stimulated by the hormone,
cholecystokinin

Parts of the Biliary Tract
1. Bile canaliculi
• are small ducts between
hepatocytes that collect bile
produced by the hepatocytes

2. Right & left hepatic ducts

• receives bile from the bile
canaliculi
• unite to form the common hepatic
duct

3. Common hepatic duct

• receives bile from the right & left
hepatic ducts
• joins the cystic duct from the
gallbladder to form the common
bile duct

4. Cystic duct
• duct where bile enters & leaves the
gallbladder
• joins the common hepatic duct to
form the common bile duct

5. Common bile duct

• receives bile from the cystic duct of
the gallbladder and common
hepatic duct
• joins the pancreatic duct at the
ampulla of Vater

6. Ampulla of Vater
• a short tube formed by the union of
the common bile duct & pancreatic
duct just before they empty into the
duodenum

7. Sphincter of Oddi
• guards the entrance into the
duodenum
• prevents reflux of intestinal
contents into the ampulla of Vater
to the common bile duct &
pancreatic duct
• empties bile & pancreatic juice into
duodenum when relaxed

SMALL INTESTINE
• is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter

& approx. 20 ft. (6 m) long
• extends from the stomach to the
cecum of the large intestine
• receives chyme from the stomach
• where most digestion & absorption
of nutrients occur

SMALL INTESTINE
• divided into 3 regions:

a) duodenum
is the first 10 inches (25 cm) of
the small intestine
where pancreatic juice & bile are
emptied
shortest region of small intestine

SMALL INTESTINE
b) jejunum
is about 8 ft long
c) ileum
final & longest region of the
small intestine
is about 11 ft long
contains Peyer’s patches

PEYER’S PATCHES
SMALL INTESTINE
• has the same 4 basic layers

• its mucosa consists of simple
columnar epith. & contains the ff.
cells:
a) goblet cells
secrete mucus to lubricate the
chyme & form a protective
barrier on the intestinal wall

SMALL INTESTINE
b) absorptive cells
contain microvilli w/c aid in
absorption
also synthesize brush-border
enzymes, intestinal enzymes w/c
aid in chemical digestion

SMALL INTESTINE
brush-border enzymes include:

 maltase  breaks down
maltose into glucose
 sucrase  breaks down
sucrose into glucose &
fructose
 lactase  breaks down lactose
into glucose & galactose

SMALL INTESTINE
 enterokinase  converts
trypsinogen to trypsin (the
active enzyme)

SMALL INTESTINE
c) intestinal glands
are cells that line the deep
crevices of the intestinal mucosa
secrete intestinal juice, w/c
provides a favorable medium for
intestinal digestion & absorption

SMALL INTESTINE
d) CCK cells
enteroendocrine cells w/c
secrete the hormone,
cholecystokinin, a substance w/c
enters the bloodstream &
stimulates pancreatic enzyme
secretion, contraction of the
gallbladder & release of bile

SMALL INTESTINE
e) S cells
enteroendocrine cells w/c
secrete the hormone, secretin, a
substance w/c enters the
bloodstream & stimulates
pancreatic bicarbonate secretion

SMALL INTESTINE
• has 3 structural modifications that

enhance digestion & absorption:
a) circular folds
or “plicae circularis”
permanent ridges of the mucosa
& submucosa that increase
surface area & cause the chyme
to spiral

SMALL INTESTINE
b) villi
singular: villus
are tiny, fingerlike extensions of
the mucosa
vastly increases the surface area
of the epithelium available for
absorption & digestion

SMALL INTESTINE
b) villi
each villus has a layer of simple
columnar epithelium surrounding
a core w/c contains an arteriole,
venule, a blood capillary network
& a lacteal

SMALL INTESTINE
c) microvilli
tiny projections of the plasma
membrane of absorptive cells
increase the surface of these
cells causing the nutrients to
move rapidly into absorptive
cells

LM 200x
Digestion in the Small
Intestine
Secretin
• produced by the S cells in
response to acidic chyme entering
the duodenum
• stimulates the pancreas to secrete
pancreatic bicarbonate into the
duodenum w/c neutralizes the acid
in the chyme

Intestine
Cholecystokinin
• produced by the CCK cells also in
response to chyme in the
duodenum
• stimulates the pancreas to secrete
pancreatic enzymes & the
gallbladder to release bile into the
duodenum

Intestine
Segmentations
• localized muscle movements in the
small intestine w/c mix the
pancreatic juice, bile, intestinal
juice & chyme
• aid in chemical digestion of protein,
carbohydrates & fats w/c lasts
about 3-5 hrs

Intestine
Carbohydrate Digestion
• pancreatic amylase = breaks down
starch into maltose
• maltase = intestinal enzyme w/c
breaks down maltose to glucose
• sucrase = intestinal enzyme w/c
breaks down sucrose into glucose
& fructose

Intestine
• lactase = intestinal enzyme w/c
breaks down lactose into glucose &
galactose
• monosaccharides = the end
products of carbohydrate digestion
in the small intestine; are readily
absorbed into the villi

Intestine
• cellulose = polysaccharide found in
plants; are not digested & are
pushed along to the large intestine

Intestine
Protein Digestion
• trypsinogen = pancreatic enzyme
w/c is activated by enterokinase
• enterokinase = intestinal enzyme
w/c converts trypsinogen to trypsin
• trypsin = active enzyme w/c breaks
down proteins to peptides

Intestine
Protein Digestion
• chymotrypsinogen = pancreatic
enzyme w/c is activated by trypsin
into chymotrypsin
• chymotrypsin = active enzyme w/c
also breaks down proteins to
peptides

Intestine
Protein Digestion
• peptidase = intestinal enzyme w/c
breaks down peptides into amino
acids
• amino acids = the end products of
protein digestion in the small
intestine; are readily absorbed into
the villi

Intestine
Fat Digestion
• bile = contains bile salts w/c
emulsify fats
• pancreatic lipase = acts on the
emulsified fats; breaks down
triglycerides into fatty acids &
monoglycerides

Intestine
Fat Digestion
• fatty acids & monoglycerides = the
end products of triglyceride/fat
digestion

Absorption in the Small
Intestine
Water-soluble nutrients
• include monosaccharides, amino
acids, vit. C, B vitamins & water
• are absorbed from the lumen of the
small intestine into the capillary
networks of the villi where they
enter blood

Intestine
• Vit B12 = requires intrinsic factor
released by gastric parietal cells for
absorption
• Calcium ions = require parathyroid
hormone & vit. D for efficient
absorption in the small intestine

Intestine
• Hepatic portal vein = transports
blood from the GI organs to the
liver before it enters the general
circulation

Intestine
Fat-soluble nutrients
• include fatty acids,
monoglycerides, & fat-soluble
vitamins (vit. A, D, E & K)
• require bile salts for efficient
absorption

Intestine
Fat-soluble nutrients
• are absorbed from the lumen of the
small intestine into the lacteals of
the villi where they enter lymph as
chylomicrons
• from lymph, they are drained into
blood in the left subclavian vein via
the thoracic duct

Thoracic
Right duct
lymphatic
duct
Superior
vena cava
(w/c brings
blood to
the heart)
Right Thoracic
lymphatic duct
duct
Left
Right subclavian
subclavian vein
vein
Superior
vena cava
LARGE INTESTINE
• also called the “colon”

• last part of the GIT
• is approx. 2.5 inches (6.3 cm) in
diameter & 5 ft. (1.5 m) in length
• extends from the ileum of the small
intestine to the anus, the terminal
opening

LARGE INTESTINE
• has the same 4 basic layers

• its mucosa does not secrete
enzymes but secretes mucus to
facilitate the passage of feces

Parts of the Large Intestine
1. Cecum
• the first part of the large intestine
• ileocecal valve: a fold of mucous
membrane at the junction bet. the
ileum & cecum w/c guards the
opening of the large intestine;
prevents backflow of fecal material
into the ileum

• appendix: a small, dead-end tube
w/ abundant lymphatic tissue
attached to the cecum

2. Ascending colon
• extends superiorly from the cecum
to the right colic flexure near the
liver where it turns to the left
3. Transverse colon
• extends from the right colic flexure
to the left colic flexure near the
spleen where the colon turns
inferiorly

4. Descending colon
• extends from the left colic flexure
to the pelvis
5. Sigmoid colon
• forms an S-shaped tube that
extends into the pelvis & ends at
the rectum

6. Rectum
• the straight muscular tube that
begins at the termination of the
sigmoid colon & ends at the anal
canal
7. Anal canal
• extends from the inferior end of the
rectum to the external opening of
the GI tract called the anus

• has 2 sphincters:
 internal anal sphincter = the
involuntary, smooth muscle
layer
 external anal sphincter = the
voluntary, skeletal muscle
layer

8. Teniae coli
• are 3 conspicuous muscular bands
that run most of the length of the
large intestine
• its tonic contractions gather the
colon into a series of pouches
called haustra

Functions of the Large Intestine
1. Completion of Absorption
• the large intestine absorbs some
water, ions (particularly Na+ & Cl-),
and vitamins.

2. Vitamin Production
• Bacteria or normal flora in the large
intestine produce vitamin K and
some B vitamins (riboflavin,
thiamin, biotin, & folic acid) w/c are
then absorbed in the large
intestine’s mucosa

3. Formation & Expulsion of Feces

• As water gets absorbed from the
chyme, it changes from a liquid to a
semi-solid or solid mass called
feces.
• Feces is propelled along the large
intestine via mass peristalsis and
expelled through the defecation
reflex


• Feces consists mainly of water,
inorganic salts, epithelial cells that
have sloughed off the mucosa of
the GI tract, bacteria, products of
bacterial decomposition,
unabsorbed digested material &
indigestible parts of food.


• Flatus = are gases (hydrogen, CO2,
methane) which are by-products of
fermentation of undigested material
by bacteria or normal flora; these
gases are also expelled from the
large intestine

Mass Peristalsis
• a strong peristaltic wave that begins

at about the middle of the transverse
colon and quickly drives the contents
of the colon into the rectum
• are stimulated by presence of food in
the stomach & duodenum

Mass Peristalsis
Defecation
Reflex
• stimulated by distention of the rectal
wall
• impulses from the spinal cord travel
along parasympathetic nerves to the
descending colon, sigmoid colon,
rectum and anus

Defecation
Reflex
• contraction of the rectal muscles
shortens the rectum & increases the
pressure within it
• the pressure plus the PNS stimulation
open the internal sphincter
• once the external sphincter is relaxed,
defecation occurs

Defecation
End!

Digestive System (Student)

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The Digestive

Human Anatomy & Physiology

Human Anatomy & Physiology The Digestive System

Human Anatomy & Physiology The Digestive System

Human Anatomy & Physiology The Digestive System

• the breaking down of food into

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

• medical specialty that deals with

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

• medical specialty that deals with

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

1. Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT)

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

3. Mixing & propulsion

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

3. Mixing & propulsion

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

• the largest serous membrane of

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

• also contains blood vessels,

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

• peritoneal cavity : the slit-like space

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

• also called oral cavity

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

2. Lips & cheeks

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System

Unit 14 – The Digestive System