Lecture on Communication Theory

Chapter 6. Pulse Modulation

6.1 Introduction

 CW modulation - AM, DSB-SC,SSB,VSB,FM,PM

 Pulse modulation

Analog: discrete in time & continuous in amplitude

Digital : discrete in time & amplitude

6.2 Sampling Process

Time domain Frequency domain

1
Ts 
2W

1
Ts 
2W

1
Ts 
2W

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

1. Notation
- g (t ) : original analog signal
- Ts : sampling period
1 : sampling rate
- fs 
Ts
2. Sampling
 Sampling with (t)

gδ  f    g  nT δ  t  nT  s ; ideal sampled signal
n  


gδ  f   fs  G  f  nTs   Gδ ( f )
let

n  

where g (t )  G ( f )

Gδ  f    g  nT  exp  j 2π nfT 
s s
n  

; discrete Fourier Transform

1
 If Ts 
2W

 n   j 2nf 
G  f    g  exp  
n    2W   W 

G  f   f s G  f   f s  G f  mf s 
m  
m0

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

G  f   0 for f  W
 Under following conditions 
 f s  2W
1
G f   G  f  W  f  W
2W
1 
 n   j 2nf 
 G f    g  2W  exp   ,  W  f  W ; D.F.T.
2W n   W 

 g  n 2W  has all information contained in g(t)

3. Reconstruction
 n 
 Reconstruction g (t ) from g  
 2W 

g (t )   G( f ) exp( j 2π ft )dt
n  

W 1  n   jπ nf

W 2W
n  
 g  2W  exp 
 exp( j 2π ft )df
 W

 n  1 W n
  g  W exp[ j 2π f (t  )]df
n    2W  2W 2W

 n  sin(2π Wt  nπ )
  g 
n    2W  ( 2π Wt  nπ )


 n 
So, g (t )   g  2W sinc  2Wt - n
n  

=> Interpolation formula

where sinc 2Wt  : Interpolation function

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

4.Sampling Theorem

1)BW=W 로 band-limited signal 은 1/2W seconds 로

샘플링한
value 로 완전하게 describe 된다 .
2) BW=W 로 band-limited signal 은 1/2W 로 샘플링한
샘플값으로
완전하게 복원 가능하다

5. Aliasing

Anti - aliasing filter

 Aliasing 없애는 방법
Nyquist rate 보다 높게 sampling

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6. Reconstruction filter

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6.3 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation

1. PAM

Instantaneous sampling (Ts )

1) Sample and hold :
Lengthening(T)

- Impulse 대신 lengthening with T 를 사용한 이유

to avoid the use of an excessive channel BW

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

2. PAM signal

 PAM signal

s (t )   m(nT )h(t  nT )
n  
s s

1, 0  t  T

1
where h (t )   , t  0,t  T
2
 0 , otherwise
 Instantaneoussampled version of m(t )
m(t )   m(nT
n  
s )(t  nTs )


m(t )  h(t )   m()h(t  )d


 


 m(nT )(  nT )h(t  )d
n  
s s

 
  m(nT ) 

s

(  nTs ) h(t  )d


  m(nT
n  
s ) h(t  nTs )

So, s (t )  mδ (t )  h(t )

S ( f )  M ( f ) H ( f )
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 Lecture on Communication Theory


여기서 Mδ ( f )  f s M( f
k  
 kf s )


 S( f )  fs M( f
k  
 kf s ) H ( f )

3. S  f  로 부터m(t ) 를 recover 하는 방법

Reconstruction Equalizer 특성
filter output

 Sample and Hold 의 전달 함수

H ( f )  T sinc (fT) exp( jfT )

Delay of T/2
Amplitude distortion

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Lecture on Communication Theory

 Equalizer
1 1 πf sin 1 (π fT )
  
H ( f ) T sinc( fT ) sin(π fT ) T
T
 0.1,  or 10 times over sampling
Ts
 amplitude variation  0.005[0.5%]
 can omit equalizer

4.PAM 특징

Noise performance 는 나쁘다

TDM 경우에는 사용가능

6.4 TDM

 Total BW 는 N 배 필요

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6.5 Pulse-Position Modulation

1. PDM = Pulse-width mod. = Pulse-length mod.

: Pulse duration  m( nTs )
2. PPM (Pulse Position Mod)

s (t )   g (t  nT
n  
s  k p m(nTs ))

Sensitivity of PPM
Standard Pulse

 To make strictly nonoverlapping

Ts
k p m(t ) max 
2

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

3. Generation of PPM waves

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

4. Detection of PPM waves

 PPM  PDM  PAM  m(t )


Integrator
& sample

Delayed Version
of sliver output

Integrator & Sample

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

5. Noise in PPM

1) If the received pulses were perfectly rectangular

 no effects on pulse position
but infinite channel BW
 Finite rise time  affected by noise

Ex1. SNR of a PPM system using sinusoidal mod.

Standard Pulse : raised cosine pulse
A
g (t )  1  cosπ BT t   T  t  T
2
1
where BT 
T

Vn


A sin(2π f / BT )
G( f ) 
2π f (1  4 f 2 / BT2 )

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Lecture on Communication Theory

For sinusoidal message

Peak-to-peak swing : by Ts
Rms value of receiver output
KTs

2 2
where K : constant

Avg. signal power (with 1)

2
 KTs  K 2Ts2
  
 2 2  8
If noise amplitude = Vn ,  : positive error, Vn : noise

; g(t) 의 slope

; error

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Lecture on Communication Theory

Avg. noise power  K E τ 

2 2

2  4Vn
2
 4 K 2 E Vn2  4 K 2 N 0
 K E 2 2 2   2 2 2  2
π BT A  π BT A π BT A2

 
 E Vn2  BT N 0 ( 2 BT 
N0
2
)

π 2 BT TS2 A2
 (SNR)o 
32 N 0

Avg. transmitted power P

TS
1 3A2
P  g (t ) dt 
2 2
T
T  S
2
4 BT TS

(Avg. noise power in message BW = W) = WN o

3 A2
 ( SNR)C 
4TS BT WN o

( SNR ) O π 2 BT2Ts3W
FOM  
( SNR ) C 24

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Lecture on Communication Theory

1
T
Assume s  ; Nyquist sampling rate
2W
2
π 2  BT 
FOM   
199  W 

FOM > 1 if BT  4.41W

3) 결론

– PPM 에서는 FOM 은 크게 하려면 BT 가 커야 된다 .

– Noise 가 너무 크면 noise 를 message 로 오인
 Threshold Effect

6.6 Bandwidth - Noise trade off

1. PPM 과 FM 의 유사한 점

1) FOM 가 (BT/W)2 에 비례

2) Threshold Effect

2. FOM 와 BT 간의 trade - off

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6.7 Quantization Process

1. Memoryless Quantizer

1) Quantizer

Figure 6.16 Description of a memoryless quantizer

index
Signal amplitude m  k if k :  mk  m  mk 1 
k = 1,2,…..,L

mk : decision levels or decision thresholds

vk : representation levels or reconstruction levels
 = mk - mk-1 : quantum or step - size

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Lecture on Communication Theory

Midthread
Uniform Quantizer
2) Midrise
Non-uniform Quantizer

3) Qunatization 하는 이유 : human sense (ear or eye )

can detect only finite intensity differences

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

2. Quantization Noise

m v
g  
r.v. M r.v. V
(continuous) (discrete)

1) Q = M - V ; quantization Error  thermal noise

uniformly distributed r.v.

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Lecture on Communication Theory

2) p.d.f of Q
1  
 q
fQ (g )   2 2

0 otherwise

2mmax , signal = [-mmax, mmax]

where Δ
L
L = total # of levels
 Variance

 
Δ
σ 2
Q  2
Δ q 2 f Q  q  dq  E Q 2

2
Δ
1 Δ2
  q dq 
2 2
Δ
Δ 
2
12

3. Bit 할당 및 SNR

R: bits per sample

L  2 R , R  log 2 L
2mmax
Δ 
2R
1 2 1 2
σ Q
2
 Δ  m max 2  2 R
12 3

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Lecture on Communication Theory

Output SNR (neglect receiver noise)

P 3P 2 R
(SNR)o  2
 2
2
σ Q mmax

ex) Sinusoidal Modulating Signal

Am2
P mmax  Am
2
Am2 2 R
3 2
3
 (SNR)O  2 2  (2 2 R )
Am 2

10 log 10( SNR )o  1.8  6 R [dB ]

Level Bits SNR

32 5 31.8
64 6 37.8
128 7 43.8
256 8 49.8
12 73.8
16 97.8

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6.8 PCM

1. PCM 구조

LPF : for anti-aliasing

2. Sampling : a train of narrow rectangular pulses,

Nyquist sampling theorem 에 의한
sampling
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 Lecture on Communication Theory

3. Quantization : Discrete in both time & amplitude

1) Linear Quantizer
2) Nonlinear Quantizer
Voice signal 에서 사용하는 이유 :
loud talk : weak talk = 100 : 1
weak talk  small step-size

loud talk  large step-size

1 3 7 15 31

3) Nonlinear Q = Compressor + Uniform Quantizer

  - law
log(1  μ m )
v  where  > 0
log(1  μ )

-  = 0  Uniform Quantizer

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Lecture on Communication Theory

- Reciprocal slope : quantum steps

dm log(1  μ )
 (1  μ m )
dv μ
 dv 1  μ 
    
 dm
 log(1  μ )  1  μ m  
μ m  1   linear

 m  1   logarithmic

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Lecture on Communication Theory

A - law
Am 1
, 0 m 
1  log A A
v 
1  log( A m ) 1
,  m 1
1  log A A

- A = 1  Uniform Quantizer
- Practical value of A  A  100
- Reciprocal slope
1  log A 1
dm , 0 m 
 A A
dv 1
(1  log A) m ,  m 1
A

 Compander = Compressor + Expander

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

4. Encoding

1) Encoding process : Translate the discrete set of

sample values to a more appropriate form of signal
to make the transmitted signal more robust to noise,
interference and other channel degradations
- Code : particular arrangement of discrete events
- Code element or symbol
- Code word or character or alphabet

ex) 8 bit code word 256 levels.

R = 4 bits  16 level

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Lecture on Communication Theory

2) Binary symbols 을 나타내는 line codes.

 On - off signaling 1  high, 0  zero.

 NRZ signaling 1  +A
0  -A
 RZ signaling 1  half width
0  no pulse

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

 Binary RZ 1  +A,-A alternately

0  no pulse
- no dc

 Split-phase (Manchester Code)

1 : +A  -A with half width
0 : -A  +A with half width
- no dc

 Differential Encoding
1 : no transition
0 : transition

5. Regeneration ( Regenerative Repeater)

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 Lecture on Communication Theory
 Accumulation of distortion and noise Completely removed
if no error in decision making process.
 Regenerated signal 에 error 가 생길 경우
Channel noise and interference  bit errors
Timing jitter  distortion  bit errors

6. Decoding  Quantized PAM signal

7. Filtering  LPF with BW = W (message BW)

8. Multiplexing ; TDM

9. Synchronization

- TDM 의 경우 수신기가 송신기에 synchronization

- Frame Sync.

Example 3. T1 System

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Lecture on Communication Theory

 bit 193 : framing bit, for sync

 Voice channels
- 8 bit PCM used on five of six frames
- 7 bit PCM used on every of six frames.
Bit 8 of each channel is a signaling bit
1
193   1.544 Mbps
125
Voice signal : 300 ~ 3100 Hz
LPF for anti-aliasing = cut off = 3100 Hz
Standard Sampling = 8KHz
Compression law = approximate -law with =255

64
128
256
512
1024
2048

4096

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

MSB = 1 if +
8bit word MSB = 0 if -
Next 3 bits : segments
LSB 4 bits : amplitude within a segment

6.9 Noise Considerations in PCM Systems

1. Channel noise
- Additive, white, Gaussian
- Bit error
- Error Rate = Average probability of symbol error
2. Quantization Noise : signal dependent
3. Error threshold

PCM using NRZ (Binary PCM)

Assume 105 bps = 100 Kbps

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

Error threshold (at about 11dB)

 60 - 70 dB required using AM
Regenerative Repeater
: Effects of amplitude, phase, and nonlinear
distortions in one link have practically no effect
on the regenerated input signal to the next link
Cliff Effects
 Segment error probability, 8 VSB with 4 state trellis, RS
(207,187)
1E+01
1E+00
Note: Threshold of visibility
1E-01 (TOV) has been measured to
occur at a S/N of 14.9dB when
there are 2.5 segment errors per
1E-02
Probability of Error

second which is a segment

error rate (SER) of 1.93x10-4.
1E-03
SER at TOV
1E-04
1E-05
1E-06
1E-07
1E-08
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

S/N db (RMS)
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 Lecture on Communication Theory

 16 VSB error probability

1E+01
1E+00
1E-01
Probability of Error

16-VSB
1E-02
Symbol Error Rate
1E-03
1E-04 Segment Error
Rate After Reed-
1E-05 Solomon FEC

1E-06
1E-07
1E-08
8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36
S/N db (RMS)

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6.10 Virtues, Limitations, and Modifications of PCM

1. PCM 의 장점
1) Ruggedness to channel noise & interference
2) Efficient regeneration of a coded signal
3) Efficient exchange of increase channel BW for improved SNR
4) Uniform format  integration with other forms of digital data
in a common network
5) Comparative ease in TDM system
6) Secure communication ex ) encryption

2. 단점
data compression
1) Increased channel BW 
wide band : satellite,optic fiber
2) Increased system complexity  VLSI or Delta modulation

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6.11 Delta Modulation

1. DM System
 Oversampling to increase the correlation between adjacent
samples.
 Staircase approximation ±

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Lecture on Communication Theory

e( nTs )  m( nTs )  mq ( nTs  Ts ) ; error signal

eq ( nTs )   sgn[e(nTs )] ; quantized error signal
mq ( nTs )  mq {( n  1)Ts }  eq nTs )

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

2. DM Quantization error

1) Slope overload distortion

2) Granular Noise

3) Slope overload distortion 을 없애는 조건

 dm(t )
 max
Ts dt

4) Slope overload Trade

  off
 Granular Noise
5) Adaptive DM: 입력 신호의 크기에 따라 adaptive

하게 결정

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

3. Delta-Signal Modulation (D -M)

; 수신기의 integrator 을 송신기로 이동

1) DM 의 단점 : 수신기에 error 의 accumulation

2) Delta-Sigma Mod 의 영향
Low frequency content of input signal is pre-emphasized
 Adjacent sample 간의 correlation 이 증가하여 overall
system performance 증가
 Receiver 가 simple
3) Smoothed version of 1 bit PCM

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

6.12 Differential PCM

1. High correlation between adjacent samples

Redundant information
redundancy in temperal
ex) Video redundancy in spatial
redundancy in entropy
temporal redundancy
Voice
pitch frequency

2. DPCM System
eq (( n  1)Ts

Ts

mq ( n  1)Ts

mq (nTs )

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Lecture on Communication Theory

Prediction error e( nTs )  m( nTs )  m ˆ ( nTs )

Quantizer output eq ( nTs )  e( nTs )  q ( nTs )
  
Quantization
error
Prediction filter input
mq ( nTs )  m
ˆ ( nTs )  eq ( nTs )
m ˆ (nTs )  e( nTs )  q ( nTs )

 m( nTs )  q ( nTs )

mq (nTs ) is independent of mˆ (nTs )

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

3. Processing Gain
2
σ
M
( SNR )O 
2
σ
Q

where σ 2M : Variance of m(nTs ) with zero mean

σ Q2 : Variance of q (nTs ) with zero mean

 2  2 
   
( SNR )O    E   Gp ( SNR )Q
M
2  2 
    
 E  Q 
2
where  : Variance of prediction error
E
( SNR)Q : signal to quantization noise ratio
- Processing Gain ; Predictor 를 사용해서 생기는 Gain
2

M
Gp 
2

E

- Optimum ( SNR)Q adv. of DPCM over PCM =  4 ~ 11dB

- For constant signal-to quantization noise ratio ( SNR)Q
DPCM saving of about 8 - 16kbps over PCM (Ts = 8KHz)

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 Lecture on Communication Theory
6.13 Coding Speech at low bit rates. (32, 16, 8, 4 kbps)

1. Design Philosophy

1) Remove redundancies by statistical characteristics

of speech waveforms
2) Properties of hearing  Phychoaccoustic Modeling

2. 오디오 압축의 원리

Psychoacoustic model
1KHz sinewave masker
70

60
Threshold in quiet
Sound pressure level (dB)

50 Masking threshold
40

30

20

10

0
frequency
0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20KHz
- Masking curve 이하는 감지 불능 .
- 큰 소리는 주변의 작은 소리를 Mask 함 .

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 Lecture on Communication Theory

2. Adaptive Differential PCM ; Time-domain codes

1) Adaptive quantization : time-varying step size

 (nTs )  
ˆ M ( nTs )

where  : constant

ˆ M (nTs ) : estimate of M (nTs )
 Adaptive quantization with forward estimation (AQF)
unquantized samples of the input signal
 forward estimates of M ( nTs )
Buffer 필요 : (nTs) 를 정할 동안 unquantized sample 저장
TX of level information
Delay in encoding(16msec)  AQB 를 더 많이 사용

 Adaptive quantization with backward estimation (AQB)

samples of quantized output
 backward estimates of M ( nTs )

Buffer 없음 , delay 없음

SKKU 43 J.D. Cho

Lecture on Communication Theory

2) Adaptive Prediction

 speech signals are inherently nonstationary

Autocorrelation function & p.s.d of speech signals are

time-varying

Adaptive prediction with forward estimation (APF)

Adaptive prediction with backward estimation (APB)

- Logic for adaptive prediction : LMS algorithm

- 32 kbps 에서 impressive

SKKU 44 J.D. Cho

 Lecture on Communication Theory

3. Adaptive Subband Coding ; Freq-domain code

- 16kbps 64 kbps PCM

- 16kbps, 8kbps, 4kbps
Quasi - periodic nature of voice signal
pitch frequency  pitch prediction
Noise Masking Phenomenon
동일 band 의 signal 보다 15dB 낮은 noise 는 human ear 가
감지하지 못한다 .
즉 format frequency (resonance freq of the vocal track tube)
근처에서는 large coding error 를 허용한다 .
Psychoaccoustic modeling
- Adaptive subband coding

- Complexity of 16kbps 100 × (that of 64k PCM)

- Processing delay 25 msec
Voice mail 에는 문제없음

<H.W.> 6.2, 6.6, 6.7, 6.8, 6.15, 6.17

SKKU 45 J.D. Cho