CHEMICAL FORMULA AND

COMPOSITION STOICHIOMETRY
 OUTLINE
• 2-1 Atoms and Molecules
• 2-2 Chemical Formulas
• 2-3 Ions and Ionic Compounds
• 2-4 Names and Formulas of Some Ionic Compounds
• 2-5 Atomic Weight
• 2-6 The Mole
• 2-7 Formula Weight, Molecular Weight, and Moles
• 2-8 Perfect Composition and Formulas of Compounds
• 2-9 Derivation of Formulas from Elemental Composition
• 2-10 Determination of Molecular Formulas
• 2-11 Some other Interpretations of Chemical Formulas
• 2-12 Purity of Samples
 OBJECTIVES
After you have studied this chapter, you should be able to

• Understand some early concepts of atoms

• Use chemical formulas to solve various kinds of chemical problems
• Relate names to formulas and charges of simple ions
• Combine simple ions to write formulas and names of some ionic
compounds
• Recognize and use formula weight and mole relationship
• Interconvert masses, moles, and formulas
• Determine percent compositions in compounds
• Determine formulas from composition
• Perform calculations of purity of substances
• The languages we use to describe the forms of matter and the changes
in its compositions is not limited to use in chemistry courses; it appears
throughout the scientific world.
• Chemical symbols, formulas, and equations are use in such diverse
areas as agriculture, home economics, engineering, geology , physics,
biology, medicine, and dentistry. In this chapter we describe the
simplest atomic theory. We shall use it as we represent the chemical
formulas of elements and compounds.
• The word ‘’ stoichiometry ‘’ is derived from the Greek stoicheion, which
means ‘’ first principle or element,’’.
• Metron, which means ‘’measure.’’
• Stoichiometry describes the quantitative relationships among elements
in compounds (composition stoichiometry) and among substances as
they undergo chemical changes (reaction stoichiometry).
 2-1 ATOMS AND MOLECULES
• The Greek philosopher Democritus (470-400bc) suggested that all matter is
composed of tiny, discrote, indivisible particles that he called atoms. His ideas,
based entirely on philosophical speculation rather than experimental evidence,
were rejected for 2000 years. By the late 1700s, scientists began to realize that
the concept of atoms provided an explanation for many experimental
observations about the nature of matter.
• By the early 1800s, the Law of Conservation of Matter (Section 1-1) and the law
of Definite Proportions (Section 1-5) were both accepted as general descriptions
of how matter behaves.
• John Dalton (1766-1844), an English schoolteacher, tried to explain why matter
behaves in such systematic ways as those expressed here. In 1808, he published
the first ‘’modern’’ ideas about the existence and nature of atoms. Dalton’s
explanations summarized and expanded the nebuluos concepts of early
philosopher and scientists; more importantly, his ideas were based on
reproducible experimental results of measurements by many scientists.
 DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY
1. An element is composed of extremely small, indivisible
particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element have identical properties that
differ from those of other elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or transformed into
atoms of another element.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms of different elements
combine with one another in small whole-number ratios.
5. The relative numbers and kinds of atoms are constant in a
given compound.
 Fundamental Particles of Matter
Fundamentals Particles of Matter

Particle Approximate Mass Charge

(symbol) (amu)* (relative scale)
Electron (e-) 0.0 1-
Proton (p or p+) 1.0 1+
Neutron (n or n) 1.0 none
Particles: electron, proton, and neutrons. These are the basics building blocks of atoms. The masses and
charges of the three fundamental particles are shown in table 2-1 .
The masses of protons and neutrons are nearly equal, but the mass of an electron is much smaller.
Neutrons carry no charge. The charge on a proton is equal in magnitude, but opposite in sign, to the
charge on an electron. Because any atom is electrically neutral it contains an equal number of electrons
and protons.
The atomic number (symbol is Z) of an element is defined as the number of protons in the nucleus. In the
periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic numbers. These are the red numbers
above the symbols for the elements in the periodic table on the inside front cover. For example, the atomic
of silver is 47.
A molecule is the smallest particle of an element or compound that can have a stable independent
existence. In nearly all molecules, two or more atoms are bonded together in very small, discrete units
(particles) that are electrically neutral.
• Individual oxygen atoms are not stable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Single atoms of oxygen mixed under these condition quickly combine to form pairs. The
oxygen with which we are all familiar is made up of two atoms of oxygen; it is a diatomic
molecule, O2. Hydrogen, nitrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine are other examples
of diatomic molecules
 2-2 CHEMICAL FORMULA
• A chemical formula tells us the number of atoms of each
element in a compound. It contains the symbols of the
atoms of the elements present in the compound as well
as how many there are for each element in the form of
subscripts
• A compound is a substance made up of a definite
proportion of two or more elements
• The structural formula shows both the actual number of
atoms of elements in a compound, how the atoms are
arranged and which atoms are bonded to one another.
TABLE 2-2 Names and Formulas of Common
Molecular Compounds
• Structural Formulas show the order and
which atoms are connected but do not
represent true molecular shapes. Ball and stick
models use balls of different colours atoms
and stick to represent bond.
The Bonding Sequence
Geometrical Arrangement
 2-3 IONIC AND IONIC COMPOUNDS
• The substances described in the preceding discussion are
composed of molecules that are electrically neutral; that is, the
number of positively-charged protons in the nucleus is equal to
the number of negatively-charged electrons.
• In contrast, ions are atoms or assemblies of atoms that have a net
electrical charge.
• Ions that contain fewer electrons than protons have a net positive
charge and are called cations.
• Ions that contain more electrons than protons have a net negative
charge and are called anions.
• Ionic compounds contain both cations and anions in a ratio that
results in no net electrical charge.
 The arrangement of Ions in NaCl
•
• Covalent and Ionic Bonding. (a) In molecular
hydrogen (H2), two hydrogen atoms share two
electrons to form a covalent bond. (b) The
ionic compound NaCl forms when electrons
from sodium atoms are transferred to chlorine
atoms. The resulting Na+ and Cl− ions form a
three-dimensional solid that is held together
by attractive electrostatic interactions.
2-4 NAMES AND FORMULAS OF SOME IONIC
COMPOUNDS
 2-5 ATOMIC WEIGHTS
• Atomic weight, also called relative atomic mass,
ratio of the average mass of a chemical element’s
atoms to some standard. Since 1961 the standard
unit of atomic mass has been one-twelfth the mass
of an atom of the isotope carbon-12. An isotope is
one of two or more species of atoms of the same
chemical element that have different atomic mass
numbers (protons + neutrons). The atomic weight of
helium is 4.002602, the average that reflects the
typical ratio of natural abundances of its isotopes
• Atomic and Molecular Weights
• The subscripts in chemical formulas, and the coefficients in chemical equations represent exact quantities. H2OH2O , for example,
indicates that a water molecule comprises exactly two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. The following equation:
• C3H8(g)+5O2(g)→3CO2(g)+4H2O(l)(2.4.1)(2.4.1)C3H8(g)+5O2(g)→3CO2(g)+4H2O(l)
• not only tells us that propane reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, but that 1 molecule of propane reacts with 5
molecules of oxygen to produce 3 molecules of carbon dioxide and 4 molecules of water. Since counting individual atoms or
molecules is a little difficult, quantitative aspects of chemistry rely on knowing the masses of the compounds involved.
• Atoms of different elements have different masses. Early work on the separation of water into its constituent elements (hydrogen and
oxygen) indicated that 100 grams of water contained 11.1 grams of hydrogen and 88.9 grams of oxygen:
• 100 grams Water→11.1 grams Hydrogen+88.9 grams Oxygen(2.4.2)(2.4.2)100 grams Water→11.1 grams Hydrogen+88.9 grams
Oxygen
• Later, scientists discovered that water was composed of two atoms of hydrogen for each atom of oxygen. Therefore, in the above
analysis, in the 11.1 grams of hydrogen there were twice as many atoms as in the 88.9 grams of oxygen. Therefore, an oxygen atom
must weigh about 16 times as much as a hydrogen atom:
• 88.9gOxygen1atom111gHydrogen2atoms=16(2.4.3)(2.4.3)88.9gOxygen1atom111gHydrogen2atoms=16
• Hydrogen, the lightest element, was assigned a relative mass of '1', and the other elements were assigned 'atomic masses' relative to
this value for hydrogen. Thus, oxygen was assigned an atomic mass of 16. We now know that a hydrogen atom has a mass of 1.6735 x
10-24 grams, and that the oxygen atom has a mass of 2.6561 X 10-23 grams. As we saw earlier, it is convenient to use a reference unit
when dealing with such small numbers: the atomic mass unit. The atomic mass unit (amu) was not standardized against hydrogen,
but rather, against the 12C isotope of carbon (amu = 12).
• Thus, the mass of the hydrogen atom (1H) is 1.0080 amu, and the mass of an oxygen atom (16O) is 15.995 amu. Once the masses of
atoms were determined, the amu could be assigned an actual value:
• 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-24 gramsconversely:1 gram = 6.02214 x 1023 amu