2.

4 Proteins
Proteins have a very wide range of functions in living organisms
Main characteristics

▪ Around 2/3 of the total dry mass of a cell

▪ Additional to carbohydrates and lipids, proteins
also contain Nitrogen (N) and Sulphur (S)
▪ The monomeres of proteins are amino-acids
▪ When many amino-acids bonds together they form
a polypeptides
▪ The bonds between amino-acids are called peptidic
bonds
 Amino-acids

▪ All amino-acids
have an amino
group (-NH2)
▪ An organic acid
group (-COOH)
▪ They all have
different R groups
▪ There are at least
20 different
amino-acids

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/AminoAcidball.svg/12
00px-AminoAcidball.svg.png
 Drawing a peptidic bond

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Peptidformationball.svg/400px-Peptidformationball.svg.png
 Functions of proteins can be very diverse

▪ Structural
▪ Forming
substances
that provide
shape,
rigidity and
support to
the
organisms.

▪ Examples:
Collagen
Catalyzing reactions

▪ Enzymes are proteins

that can participate in
chemical reactions
without being affected.
▪ They are considered
biological catalyst.
▪ They are vary specific
of the substrate they
act on.

https://images.tutorvista.com/cms/images/123/enzyme-activiyt.PNG
Movement

▪ Muscles contain Actin and

myosin proteins to produce
the contraction of the fibers

http://www.biology4kids.com/files/art/cell_filament1.png
 Defense

▪ Proteins
(Antibodies)
recognize
(antigens)
and in
ocasions
“mark” them
to help White
blood cells
fight against
infections.

https://image.slidesharecdn
.com/11immunity-
111013102909-
phpapp01/95/y8-humans-
11-immunity-7-728.jpg?
cb=1318504753
 Storage

▪ In some
organisms
proteins can
be used as a
source of
materials for
the
development
of organisms.
▪ Example:
albumin in
eggs.

http://images.wisegeek.com/cracked-egg.jpg
 Signaling

▪ Chemical Messengers in the

body are called hormones.
▪ Some of them can be made of
protein.
▪ They carry signals to specific
organs and produce reactions
on them.

▪ Example:
Growth hormone
Structure of proteins

The 3-D structure of the protein determines its function

All proteins have different structures

Primary structure Secondary structure

▪ It is the sequence of amino- ▪ When parts of the polypeptide

acids in the molecule. form shapes as α- Helix or β-
sheets.

▪ This determines the shape and

structure of the proteins. ▪ These shapes are permanent ,
held in place by hydrogen
bonds.
Structure of proteins

Tertiary structure Quaternary structure

▪ Precise compact strcuture, ▪ Whe two or more proteins held

unique for each type of together forming a more
protein. complex active molecule.
▪ Appears when molecule
stablishes permanent bonds to
other parts of the chain.
▪ Proteins can aquire fibrous or
globular shapes.
https://ka-perseus-images.s3.amazonaws.com/453bb048ca337d2042268fed53be2cab6df7d089.png
Structure of proteins

http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-nB-
UqGed7XY/Tq7dSxXA2EI/AAAAAA
AAABE/50uNbPAq8ds/s1600/prot
ein+strure.jpg
Proteins can be DENATURED

▪ When the proteins suffer changes in the environment, like in pH

or temperature their 3D structure changes and they can not
longer perform their function.

https://chelseaharripersad.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/protein-denaturation.jpg
Proteome

Is the entire set of proteins

expressed by the genome of
the individual organism.

Proteomics is the study of the

structure and function of the
entire set of proteins of
organisms.
2.5 Enzymes
Enzymes control the metabolism of the cell
Enzymes
Catalysts are molecules that can speed-up the reactions, they
can be organic or inorganic. The organic ones are called
ENZYMES.
Not all the reactions in living organisms would naturally occur
without the use of catalysts or they will require a lot of time to
happen.
Enzymes are special kind of globular proteins. They can:
▪ Carry chemical reactions in an orderly manner.
▪ Yielding products that the cell requires.
▪ Reactions can happen even if molecules are in very small
amounts.
▪ Remain unchanged at the end of the reaction.
More about enzymes

▪ Enzymes can be
anabolic if they
participate in
the
construction of
big molecules
▪ Catabolic if
they facilitate
the breaking
down of
molecules into
smaller pieces.

https://biochemistry3rst.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/enzyme-activity.gif
Enzymes have an active site

▪ As all proteins, enzimes have a special 3D shape to

accomplish its function.
▪ In this 3D structure there is a special site called active site
that has the shape of the molecules the enzyme transform.
▪ Enzymes act on specific substrates. A substrate is a molecule
that enzymes can transform into products.
▪ When substrate binds to an enzyme (collision), an enzyme-
substrate complex in formed.
▪ After the substrate has been transformed, the product is
released and the enzyme is available for reuse.
Enzyme videos

▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9B4AC0PB9F4
Activity of an enzyme

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Figure_06_05_03.jpg
http://player.slideplayer.com/29/9429722/data/images/img5.jpg
Enzymes control the metabolism

▪ In living organisms, the chemical reactions are mediated

by enzymes.
▪ Some of them can act inside the cells or arganeles
(Intracellular enzymes), and others can act outside the cells
(extracelular enzymes).
▪ Depending on its functions enzymes can be produced
permanently or they can be produced just at certain times.
Enzymes can be denatured

▪ Enzymes are very sensityve to environmental conditions,

when those conditions change the can become denatured.
▪ Denaturation changes the three-dimensional shape of the
protein, and in enzymes, that can mean a change in its active
site.
▪ Mainly changes in pH and temperature are critical to enzyme
good working.
▪ Some of these changes can be temporal and some others
permanent.
Effect of temperature on enzyme activity

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa/proteins/proteinsrev3.shtml
Effect of pH on enzyme activity

http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_aqa/proteins/proteinsrev3.shtml
Factors affecting enzyme activity

Substrate concentration:
When there is more concentration of a substrate in a solution,
the chances of effective collision increase, producing an
increase in enzyme activity, as the substrate is transformed,
enzyme activity slowly decreases.

Enzyme concentration:
When more enzymes are present, the chances of effective
collisions increase, therefore, enzyme activity increases, but the
substrate can limit the reaction and decrease the activity later.
 Enzymes and homeostasis

▪ As most of the chemical reactions in the body are

mediated by enzymes, and they require spacific
pH’s and temperaturas, the body needs to control
those parameters to keep them working. That
regulation is known as HOMEOSTASIS.

https://publiceyemaritzburg.co.za/32012/international-day-yoga/
Industrial use of enzymes

There are a great number of industrial processes that require

enzymes as catalysts.
Enzymes are used because they are:
▪ Highly specific to transform a product or a type of bond.
▪ Efficient, because a small amount of enzyme can transform a
good amount of moelcules.
▪ Effective at normal temperatures and pressures, if so, they
can only require a small increase might be required.
Industrial uses of enzymes

For industry, enzymes are usually obtained from

microorganisms because:
▪ They can grow troughout the year in easy-to-maintain
ferments.
▪ Grow quiclky and can produce great amounts of enzyme in
relation to their mass.
▪ May be bacteria from extreme environment with enzymes
that can resist harsh conditions.
▪ May be modified genetically for the production of specific
substances. i.e. Human insulin.
Inmobilization of enzymes for industrial use

▪ In order to use them more efficiently, enzymes can be

extracted from the cells and inmobilized by physical or
chemical means in ordert to be reused many times.
Advantages:
▪ It permits the reuse of the enzyme preparation
▪ The product is enzyme free and cells free
▪ The enzymes are more stable and long lasting

▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oiTVJ91-YxQ
Lactose-free milk

▪ Some people are unable to produce lactase.

▪ Lactose should be hydrolysed into Glucose and Galactose.
▪ When not modified lactose reaches large intestine.
▪ In there it is digested by bacteria producing fatty acids and methane.
▪ It is usually produced by babies and remains in some adults
(descendants from northern europeans).
▪ Lactose-free milk can be done by the use of inmobilized lactase on
milk after pasteurization process.
▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ecZbhf96W9k
▪ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_i2cclGYPx0
Now it is time to plan the practice