Protection 1

© ABB Power Technology
1_114Q07- 1 -
Principles
Protections
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 General concepts of protection systems
 Elements of a protection system
 Relay types
 Relay design and construction
 Relay operating principles
 Applying protective relays
 LINES PROTECTION
 TRANSFORMERS PROTECTION
 STATION BUS PROTECTION

1_114Q07- 2 -
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 Relay types

1_114Q07- 3 -
Introduction
 Electric energy is one of the fundamental resources of the modern
industrial society
 Electrical power is available to the user instantly, at the correct voltage
and frequency, at exactly the amount needed.
 Yet the power system is subject to constant disturbances:
 Random load changes
 Faults by natural causes
 Equipment or operator failure
 The power system maintains its steady state mainly because of the
correct and quick remedial action taken by the protective relaying
equipment.
1_114Q07- 4 -
Introduction
 The response of the protection system must be automatic, quick, and
should cause a minimum amount of disruption to the power system.
 To accomplish this is necessary:
 Examine all possible types of faults
 Analyze the required response and design the protective equipment
necessary
 Provide for a back-up protective function to prevent failure of the protection
itself
1_114Q07- 5 -
Possible types of faults
 Overcurrent
 Short - circuits
 Not wanted contact between phases or between phase and ground
 Electrodynamic stress
 Thermal stress
 Overloads
 Thermal stress
 Ground faults
 Fire hazard
 Personal hazard
 Overvoltage
 Switching
 Temporary
 Lightning strikes
1_114Q07- 6 -
 Provoke isolation damage which could develop into short circuits

Function of protective relaying
 DETECT THE ELEMENT THAT STARTS TO OPERATE IN AN ABNORMAL MANNER
 REMOVE THIS ELEMENT FROM THE POWER SYSTEM AS QUICKLY AS

POSSIBLE
 SIGNALING, LOGGING AND REPORTING

1_114Q07- 7 -
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 Relay types

1_114Q07- 8 -
Protective relays attributes
 SENSITIVITY - Ability to detect deviations of the
parameters inside the zone or element to protect
 SELECTIVITY - Ability to discern when it must actuate, wait
or block, to remove the least number of elements
 QUICKNESS - Minimum time in the process “Detect-
Select- Trip”
 RELIABILITY - Degree of certainty that an element will
perform as intended
 SECURITY - Certainty that the relay will not operate incorrectly for
any fault
 DEPENDABILITY - Certainty that the relay will operate correctly for
all the faults it is designed to operate
 ROBUSTNESS (STRENGTH) - Ability to withstand over years
the adverse conditions at which they are submitted
 BURDEN - minimum, so as not to oversize the instrument

transformers
1_114Q07- 9 -
Selectivity and zones of protection
 Selectivity is defined in terms of regions of a power system (zones of
protection) for which a given relay is responsible.
 The relay will be considered secure if it responds only to faults within its
zone of protection
 A zone boundary is usually defined by a CT and a CB.
 The CT provides the ability to detect a fault inside the zone
 The CBs provide the ability to isolate the fault
1_114Q07- 10 -
Selectivity and zones of protection
 All power system
elements must be
encompassed by at least
one zone.
 The more important
elements must be
included in at least two
zones
 Zones must overlap to
prevent any element from
being unprotected.
 The overlap must be
finite but small to
minimize the likelihood of
a fault inside this region.
 Such a fault will cause
both protections to
operate removing a
larger segment of the
1_114Q07- 11 -
system from service

Zones of protection
DEFINED REACH UNDEFINED REACH
CLOSED ZONE OPEN ZONE
PROTECTION PROTECTION
PROTECTION REACH PROTECTION REACH
ZONE OF PROTECTION ZONE OF PROTECTION

87
1_114Q07- 12 -
50/51
Primary and back up protection
 It is essential that provision be made to clear the fault by some
alternate protection system in case of the primary protection could fail.
 These are referred to as back up protection systems
 On EHV is common to use duplicate primary protection systems
 Back up relaying may be installed locally, in the same substation, or
remotelly
 Remote back up are completely independent of the relays, CT, breakers,
etc.
 Remote back up may remove more sources that can be allowed
 Local back up use common elements an can thus fail to operate as the
primary protection
1_114Q07- 13 -
Back up protection locally at the same position
REACH OF PROTECTION 21P

REACH OF PROTECTION 21B
21P
21B
1_114Q07- 14 -
Back up protection locally at different positions
REACH OF PROTECTION 50/51 OF THE TRANSFORMER
REACH OF PROTECTION 50/51 OF BUS TIE BREAKER
REACH OF PROTECTION 21
21
50/51
1_114Q07- 15 -
50/51
A B
Remote back up protection
REACH OF PROTECTION 21B

REACH OF PROTECTION 21A
21 21
SUBSTATION B SUBSTATION A
1_114Q07- 16 -
1_114Q07- 17 -
Teletrip
86
2
TELETRIP
TELETRIP
87
1
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 Relay types

1_114Q07- 18 -
Elements of a Protection System
1 4
2.1
5
2 A D
2.2
2.4 P
F.A. 2.3
3
1_114Q07- 19 -
1
 The function of transducers (usually CT and VT) is to provide current

and voltage signals to the relays, to detect deviations of the parameters
watched over.
1_114Q07- 20 -
1
2.1
2 A D
 Relays are the logic 2.2

elements which 2.4 P
initiate the tripping F.A. 2.3
and closing
3
operations.
1_114Q07- 21 -
1 4
2  Circuit breakers
isolate the fault by
interrupting the
current.
3
1_114Q07- 22 -
 Tripping power, as
well as power required 1 4
by the relays, is
usually provided by
the station battery
because is safer than
the ac faulted system. 2.1
5
2 A D
2.2
2.4 P
F.A. 2.3
3
1_114Q07- 23 -
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 Relay types

1_114Q07- 24 -
Classification of relays
 Relays can be divided into six functional categories:
 Protective relays. Detect defective lines, defective apparatus, or
other dangerous or intolerable conditions. These relays generally trip
one or more circuit breakers, but may also be used to sound an
alarm.
 Monitoring relays. Verify conditions on the power system or in the
protection system. These relays include fault detectors, alarm units,
channel-monitoring relays, synchronism verification, and network
phasing. Power system conditions that do not involve opening circuit
breakers during faults can be monitored by verification relays.
 Reclosing relays. Establish a closing sequence for a circuit breaker
following tripping by protective relays.
1_114Q07- 25 -
 Relays can be divided into six functional categories:
 Regulating relays. Are activated when an operating parameter
deviates from predetermined limits. Regulating relays function
through supplementary equipment to restore the quantity to the
prescribed limits.
 Auxiliary relays. Operate in response to the opening or closing of
the operating circuit to supplement another relay or device. These
include timers, contact-multiplier relays, sealing units, isolating
relays, lock-out relays, closing relays, and trip relays.
 Synchronizing (or synchronism check) relays. Assure that proper
conditions exist for interconnecting two sections of a power system.
1_114Q07- 26 -
 In addition to these functional categories, relays may be classified by
input, operating principle or structure, and performance characteristic.
The following are some of the classifications and definitions described
in ANSI/ IEEE Standard C37.90 (see also ANSI/IEEE C37.100
“Definitions for Power Switchgear”):
 Inputs  Operating Principle or
Structures
 Current, Voltage, Power
 Current balance Percentage
 Pressure, Frequency
 Multirestraint
 Temperature
 Product
 Flow
 Electromechanical
 Vibration
 Thermal
 Solid state
 Static
1_114Q07- 27 -
 Microprocessor
 Performance Characteristics
 Differential
 Distance
 Directional overcurrent
 Inverse time
 Definite time
 Undervoltage
 Overvoltage
 Ground or phase
 High or low speed
 Pilot
 Phase comparison
 Directional comparison
 Current differential
1_114Q07- 28 -
 By mode of Detection of  By design mode:
faults :  Electromechanical
 Level detection  Plunger type
 Magnitude comparison  Induction type
 Differential comparison  Thermal
 Phase angle comparison  Solid state
 Pilot relaying  Computer type
 Harmonic content
 Frequency sensing  By parameter controlled:
 Current
 By operating time:  Voltage
 Instantaneous  Power
Time delay  Impedance (distance)
 Independent delay  Direction

1_114Q07- 29 -
 Dependent delay  Frequency

Relay speed
 Relays are generally classified by their speed of operation as follows:
 Instantaneous
 These relays operate as soon as a secure decision is made.
 No intentional time delay is introduced to slow down the relay response
 Time delay
 An intentional time delay is inserted between the relay decision time and the
initiation of the trip action
 This time delay can be dependent on some parameter (usually inverse time
dependent) or independent
 High speed
 A relay that operates in less than a specified time (usually 3 cycles)
 Ultra high speed
 This term is not included in the Relay Standards but is commonly considered
1_114Q07- 30 -
to be operation in 4 milliseconds or less

Analog/Digital/Numerical
 Analog relays are those in which the measured quantities are converted into lower voltage but similar
signals, which are then combined or compared directly to reference values in level detectors to
produce the desired output.
 Digital relays are those in which the measured ac quantities are manipulated in analog form and
subsequently converted into square-wave (binary) voltages. Logic circuits or microprocessors compare
the phase relation-ships of the square waves to make a trip decision.
 Numerical relays are those in which the measured ac quantities are sequentially sampled and
converted into numeric data form. A microprocessor performs mathematical and/or logical operations
on the data to make trip decisions.
1_114Q07- 31 -
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 Relay types

1_114Q07- 32 -
Relay design and construction
 Protective relays for power systems are made up of one or more fault-
detecting or decision units, along with any necessary logic networks and
auxiliary units.
 Because a number of these fault-detecting or decision units are used in a
variety of relays, they are called basic units.
 Basic units fall into several categories: electromechanical units, solid-
state units integrated circuits, and microprocessor architecture.
 Combinations of units are then used to form basic logic circuits
applicable to protective relays.
1_114Q07- 33 -
Electromechanical units. Plunger units
 Four types of electromechanical units are widely used: magnetic
attraction, magnetic induction, D'Arsonval, and thermal units.
 Plunger units have cylindrical coils with an external magnetic structure
and a center plunger.
 When the current or voltage applied to the coil exceeds the pickup value,
the plunger moves upward to operate a set of contacts.
 The force F required to move the plunger is proportional to the square of
the current in the coil.
 The plunger unit's operating characteristics are largely determined by the
plunger shape, internal core, magnetic structure, coil design, and
magnetic shunts.
 Plunger units are instantaneous in that no delay is purposely introduced.
 Typical operating times are 5 to 50 msec, with the longer times occurring
near the threshold values of pickup.
1_114Q07- 34 -
 The unit shown is used as a high-dropout instantaneous overcurrent unit.
 The steel plunger floats in an air gap provided by a nonmagnetic ring in
the center of the magnetic core.
 When the coil is energized, the plunger assembly moves upward,
carrying a silver disk that bridges three stationary contacts (only two are
shown).
 A helical spring absorbs the ac plunger vibrations, producing good
contact action.
1_114Q07- 35 -
 The more complex plunger unit shown is used as an instantaneous
overcurrent or voltage unit.
 An adjustable flux shunt permits more precise settings over the nominal
four-to-one pickup range.
 This unit is relatively independent of frequency, operating on dc, 25-Hz,
or nominal 60-Hz frequency. It is available in high- and low-dropout
versions.
1_114Q07- 36 -
Electromechanical units. Clapper units
 Clapper units have a U-shaped magnetic frame with a movable
armature across the open end.
 The armature is hinged at one side and spring-restrained at the other.
 When the associated electrical coil is energized, the armature moves
toward the magnetic core, opening or closing a set of contacts with a
torque proportional to the square of the coil current.
 The pickup and dropout values of clapper units are less accurate than
those of plunger units.
 Clapper units are primarily applied as auxiliary or go/no-go units.
1_114Q07- 37 -
Electromechanical units. Clapper units
 Upward movement of the armature releases a target, which drops to
provide a visual indication of operation (the target must be reset
manually).
 The ac unit operates as an instantaneous overcurrent or instantaneous
trip unit. It is equipped with a lag-loop to smooth the force variations due
to the alternating current input. Its adjustable core provides pickup
adjustment over a nominal four-to-one range.
1_114Q07- 38 -
Electromechanical units. Polar units
 Polar units operate from direct current applied to a coil wound around the
hinged armature in the center of the magnetic structure.
 A permanent magnet across the structure polarizes the armature-gap
poles, as shown.
 The nonmagnetic spacers, located at the rear of the magnetic frame, are
bridged by two adjustable magnetic shunts.
 This arrangement enables the magnetic flux paths to be adjusted for
pickup and contact action.
1_114Q07- 39 -
 With balanced air gaps, the flux paths are as shown and the armature will
float in the center with the coil deenergized.
 With the gaps unbalanced, some of the flux is shunted through the
armature.
 The resulting polarization holds the armature against one pole with the coil
deenergized. The coil is arranged so that its magnetic axis is in line with the
armature, and at a right angle to the permanent magnet axis.
1_114Q07- 40 -
 Current in the coil magnetizes the armature either north or south, increasing
or decreasing any prior polarization of the armature, if as shown in Figure b,
the magnetic shunt adjustment normally makes the armature a north pole, it
will move to the right.
 Direct current in the operating coil, which tends to make the contact end a
south pole, will overcome this tendency and the contact will move to the left.
 Depending on design and adjustments, this polarizing action can be gradual
or quick.
 The left-gap adjustment controls the pickup value, the right-gap adjustment
the reset value.
 Some units use both an operating and a restraining coil on the armature.
 The polarity of the restraint coil tends to maintain the contacts in their initial
position. Current of sufficient magnitude applied to the operating coil will
provide a force to overcome the restraint, causing the contacts to change

position.
1_114Q07- 41 -
 A combination of normally open or normally closed contacts is available.
 These polar units operate on alternating current through a full-wave
rectifier and provide very sensitive, high-speed operation on very low
energy levels.
K3
 The operating equation of the polar unit is K1 I op  K 2 I r 

 where K1 and K2 are adjusted by the magnetic shunts; K3 is a design

constant;  is the permanent magnetic flux; Iop is the operating current;
and Ir is the restraint current in milliamperes
1_114Q07- 42 -
Magnetic induction units
 There are two general types of
magnetic induction units:
 induction disc
 cylinder units.
 Originally, induction disc units
were based on the watt-hour
meter design. Modern units,
however, although using the
same operating principles are
quite different. All operate by
torque derived from the
interaction of fluxes produced by
an electromagnet with those
from induced currents in the
plane of a rotable aluminum disc.

1_114Q07- 43 -
Magnetic induction units. Induction disk
 The E unit, in Fig, has three poles on one side of the disc and a common
magnetic member or “keeper” on the opposite side.
 The main coil is on the center leg. Current I in the main coil produces flux,
which passes through the air gap and disc to the keeper. (A small portion
of the flux is shunted off through the side air gap.)
 The flux T, returns as L, through the left-hand leg and R through the
right-hand leg, where T = L + R. A short-circuited lagging coil on the left
leg causes L to lag both R and T, producing a split-phase motor action.
1_114Q07- 44 -
 Flux L induces voltage Vs, and current Is flows, essentially in phase, in
the shorted lag coil. Flux T, is the total flux produced by main coil
current, I. The three fluxes cross the disc air gap and induce eddy
currents in the disc. These eddy currents react with the pole fluxes and
produce the torque that rotates the disc. With the same reference
direction for the three fluxes as shown, the flux shifts from left to right
and rotates the disc clockwise, as viewed from the top.
1_114Q07- 45 -
 There are many alternate versions of the induction disc unit.
 The unit shown, for example, may have a single current or voltage input.
 The disc always moves in the same direction, regardless of the direction
of the input. If the lag coil is open, no torque will exist.
 Other units can thus control torque in the induction disc unit.
 Most unusually, a directional unit is connected in the lag coil circuit.
 When the directional unit's contact is closed, the induction disc unit has
torque; when the contact is open, the unit has no torque.
1_114Q07- 46 -
 Induction disc units are used in power or directional applications by
substituting an additional input coil for the lag coil in the E unit
 The phase relation between the two inputs determines the direction of
the operating torque.
 A spiral spring on the disc shaft conducts current to the moving contact.
This spring, together with the shape of the disc (an Archimedes spiral)
and design of the electromagnet, provides a constant minimum operating
current over the contact travel range.
 A permanent magnet with adjustable keeper (shunt) dampens the disc,
and magnetic plugs in the electromagnet control the degree of
saturation.
 The spring tension, damping magnet, and magnetic plugs allow separate
and relatively independent adjustment of the unit's inverse-time current
characteristics.
1_114Q07- 47 -
Magnetic induction units. Cylinder unit
 The operation of a cylinder unit is similar to
that of an induction motor with salient poles
for the stator windings.
 The basic unit used for relays has an inner
steel core at the center of the square
electromagnet, with a thin-walled aluminum
cylinder rotating in the air gap.
 Cylinder travel is limited to a few degrees by
the moving contact attached to the top of
the cylinder and the stationary contacts.
 A spiral spring provides reset torque.
1_114Q07- 48 -
Magnetic induction units. Cylinder unit
 Operating torque is a function of the product of the two operating
quantities applied to the coils wound on the four poles of the
electromagnet, and the cosine of the angle between them. The torque
equation is
T  KI1 I 2 cos 12     K s
 where K and  are design constants; I1 and I2 are the currents through
the two coils; 12 is the angle between I1 and I2; and Ks is the
restraining spring torque. Different combinations of input quantities can
be used for different applications, system voltages or currents, or
network voltages.
1_114Q07- 49 -
D´Arsonval unit
 In the D'Arsonval unit, a magnetic structure and
an inner permanent magnet form a two-pole
cylindrical core.
 A moving coil loop in the air gap is energized by
direct current, which reacts with the air gap flux
to create rotational torque.
 The D'Arsonval unit operates on very low energy
input, such as that available from dc shunts,
bridge networks, or rectified ac.
 The unit can also be used as a dc contact-
making milliammeter or millivoltmeter.
1_114Q07- 50 -
Thermal units
 Thermal units consist of bimetallic strips or coils that have one end fixed
and the other end free.
 As the temperature changes, the different coefficients of thermal
expansion of the two metals cause the free end of the coil or strip to
move.
 A contact attached to the free end will then operate based on
temperature change.
1_114Q07- 51 -
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 Relay types

1_114Q07- 52 -
Level detection. Over-current relays
 This is the simplest of all relay operating principles.
 The relay operates for values of the parameter above or under what is
called pick up setting.
 Examples of this type are over-current relays and under-voltage relays
1_114Q07- 53 -
Level detection. Over-current relays
 The operating characteristic of an overcurrent relay can be presented
as a plot of the operating time vs. the current.
 This figure represents the operating time for an independent delay time
overcurrent relay.
 It will operate always at the same time for currents over the pick up setting
 This relays are defined by the pick up current, as number of times the
normal current, and the operating time
 Coordination of different protections of this type is achieved by time
delaying and pick up setting
 It must be a minimum of 0,3 sec. to permit operating of the first breaker
t 50 (ANSI)
Relé tiempo independ.
t0
In n*In i
1_114Q07- 54 -
Over-current relays. Dependent time delay
 This type of relay will have an operating time depending on the value
of the current, generally with an inverse characteristic, that is to say ,
the bigger the current, the shorter the time.
 This characteristic permits a reasonable coordination
between protections just changing the pick up setting. 50/51
 These relays will be defined by the pick up setting and
the type of tripping curve, which can be adjusted
t
 There are three or five types of curves, Normal (NI),
Very inverse (VI) and Extremely inverse (EI)
Curva trafo
Relé tiempo independ. Relé tiempo

inverso
t0
In n*In i
1_114Q07- 55 -
Overcurrent protection
 The working principle of an inverse time overcurrent relay is depicted in
this figure.
 The current to be controlled feeds a coil with multiple taps
which allow the pick up current setting.
 The generated magnetic field makes the disc rotate with a Timing 246
speed proportional to the current.
dial
 A timing dial allows the adjustment between contacts and
hence sets the op. time.
 The braking magnet lessens the rotating speed and acts 
as an opposing force to the rotation. Varying the
magnetization, different tripping curves can be achieved.
Lagging
coil
Current Braking
taps
1 2
Induction
disk
1_114Q07- 56 -
Directional overcurrent protection
 It is triggered when the current exceeds the reference value and also
the energy or power flow has the determined direction.
 An overcurrent element controls the current magnitude
 A directional element controls the direction of the power flow
V IV
Magnetic
V core
Cylinder II
II
I
I
1_114Q07- 57 -
IV
 The working principle of a directional unit is shown in the figure.
 One coil is fed with voltage and the other one with the
current.

V
The rotating torque will be proportional to the product of both IV
magnitudes (hence to power) and will invert if any of the
aforementioned magnitudes also inverts. Magnetic
 The torque will peak when the phase angle between both V core
fields is 90º.
 The rotation will only be allowed in one direction
Cylinder II
(corresponding to the selected one) closing a contact which II
allows the functioning of the overcurrent unit.
I
I
IV
1_114Q07- 58 -
 Given that the maximum rotating torque is reached when the fields owing
to the current and the voltage have a phase angle of 90º, it is necessary
to ensure that, in case of fault, the measured values have a phase angle
close to the aforementioned value.
 An internal phase angle is usually introduced to ensure the previously stated.
L.P.N
L.P.N I
L.P.M (+)
I
Abrir Cerrar
I I V  V
L.P.M (-)  = 90º L.P.M (+) 
L.P.M. : Línea Par Máximo

IV IV
V L.P.N. : Línea Par Nulo V
L.P.M (-)
 When a fault occurs, the voltage of the affected phase can be

significantly reduced, so it is recommended to measure the line to line
1_114Q07- 59 -
voltage of the other phases, in order to avoid an incorrect

performance of the protection.
Magnitude comparison
 This operating principle is based upon the comparison of one or more
operating quantities with each other.
 A current balance relay may compare the current in one circuit with the
current in another circuit, which should have equal or proportional
magnitudes under normal operating conditions.
 The relay will operate when the current division in the two circuits varies by
a given tolerance
1_114Q07- 60 -
Differential relaying for transformer protection
 It compares the current entering the transformer with the current
leaving the element.
 If they are equal there is no fault inside the zone of protection
 If they are not equal it means that a fault occurs between the two ends
87
With internal fault Id > 0  Trip
With external fault Id = 0  No trip

1_114Q07- 61 -
Differential comparison
 Alternatively one could form an algebraic sum of the two currents entering the
protected element, which could be termed as differential current (Id), and use a
level detector relay to detect the presence of a fault.
 In general this principle is capable of detecting very small magnitudes of fault.
 Its only drawback is that it requires currents from the extremities of a zone of
protection
1_114Q07- 62 -
Phase angle comparison
External fault = IA e IB are in phase = No trip
IA IB
A B
Internal fault = IA e IB are in phase reversal = Trip

1_114Q07- 63 -
Circuit breaker failure protection
 The breaker may have a mechanical failure if it is not able to open any of the poles when it is ordered
to do so, or even an electrical failure if although open, is not capable of breaking the current, which
will keep on flowing as an arc.
 This implies a current flow that keeps on feeding the fault which can be used to detect the breaker
failure itself.
 In those applications which even though the mechanical failure exist, the current could not be high
enough to be detected, the opening must also be verified by means of breaker auxiliary contacts.
1_114Q07- 64 -
 A tripping order for the 21

circuit breaker initiates
the time delay count I falta
down for the protection.
87B+FI
1_114Q07- 65 -
 Once the time delay is over , if the
breaker is not yet open, the protection
sends a tripping order to all the
adjacent breakers, including those at
21
the end of the lines if necessary.
 Sometimes two time delays are used,
I falta
the first one to repeat the tripping order
for the breaker itself, and the second for
the other breakers.
TELEDISPARO
87B+FI
T  250 ms
1_114Q07- 66 -
AGENDA
 PRINCIPLES
 Introduction
 Relay types

1_114Q07- 67 -
Factors Influencing Relay Performance
 Relay performance is generally classed as
 (1) correct,
 (2) no conclusion
 (3) incorrect.
 Incorrect operation may be either failure to trip or false tripping.
 The cause of incorrect operation may be (1) poor application, (2) incorrect
settings, (3) personnel error, or (4) equipment malfunction.
 Equipment that can cause an incorrect operation includes current transformers,
voltage transformers, breakers, cable and wiring, relays, channels, or station
batteries.
 Incorrect tripping of circuit breakers not associated with the trouble area is
often as disastrous as a failure to trip. Hence, special care must be taken in
both application and installation to ensure against this.
 “No conclusion” is the last resort when no evidence is available for a correct
or incorrect operation. Quite often this is a personnel involvement.
1_114Q07- 68 -
Protective relaying systems and their design
 Protective relays or systems are not required to function during normal
power system operation, but must be immediately available to handle
intolerable system conditions and avoid serious outages and damage.
 Thus, the true operating life of these relays can be on the order of a few
seconds, even though they are connected in a system for many years.
 In practice, the relays operate far more during testing and maintenance than
in response to adverse service conditions.
 In theory, a relay system should be able to respond to an infinite number
of abnormalities that can possibly occur within the power system.
1_114Q07- 69 -
Protective relaying systems and their design
 In practice, the relay engineer must arrive at a compromise based on

the four factors that influence any relay application:
 Economics: initial, operating, and maintenance
 Available measures of fault or troubles: fault magnitudes and
location of current transformers and voltage transformers
 Operating practices: conformity to standards and accepted
practices, ensuring efficient system operation
 Previous experience: history and anticipation of the types of trouble
likely to be encountered within the system
1_114Q07- 70 -
Applying protective relays
 The first step in applying protective relays is to state the protection problem
accurately.
 Although developing a clear, accurate statement of the problem can often be
the most difficult part, the time spent will pay dividends particularly when
assistance from others is desired.
 Information on the following associated or supporting areas is necessary:
 System configuration
 Existing system protection and any known deficiencies
 Existing operating procedures and practices, possible future expansions
 Degree of protection required
 Fault study
 Maximum load, current transformer locations and ratios
 Voltage transformer locations, connections, and ratios Impedance of lines,

transformers, and generators
1_114Q07- 71 -
 System configuration is represented by a single-line diagram showing
the area of the system involved in the protection application.
 This diagram should show in detail the location of the breakers, bus
arrangements, taps on lines and their capacity, location and size of the
generation, location, size, and connections of the power transformers
and capacitors, location and ratio of ct's and vt's, and system frequency.
 Transformer connections are particularly important. For ground relaying,
the location of all ground “sources” must also be known
1_114Q07- 72 -
 The existing protective equipment and reasons for the desired change(s)
should be outlined.
 Deficiencies in the present relaying system are a valuable guide to
improvements.
 New installations should be so specified.
 As new relay systems will often be required to operate with or utilize parts of
the existing relaying, details on these existing systems are important.
 Whenever possible, changes in system protection should conform with
existing operating procedures and practices.
 Exceptions to standard procedures tend to increase the risk of personnel error
and may disrupt the efficient operation of the system.
 Anticipated system expansions can also greatly influence the choice of
protection.
1_114Q07- 73 -
 An adequate fault study is necessary in almost all relay applications.
 Three-phase faults, line-to-ground faults, and line-end faults should all be
included in the study.
 Line-end fault (fault on the line-side of an open breaker) data are
important in cases where one breaker may operate before another.
 For ground-relaying, the fault study should include zero sequence
currents and voltages and negative sequence currents and voltages.
 These quantities are easily obtained during the course of a fault study
and are often extremely useful in solving a difficult relaying problem.
1_114Q07- 74 -

Protection 1

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© ABB Power Technology

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

 Provoke isolation damage which could develop into short circuits

 REMOVE THIS ELEMENT FROM THE POWER SYSTEM AS QUICKLY AS

 SIGNALING, LOGGING AND REPORTING

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

 BURDEN - minimum, so as not to oversize the instrument

system from service

ZONE OF PROTECTION ZONE OF PROTECTION

REACH OF PROTECTION 21P

REACH OF PROTECTION 21B

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

 The function of transducers (usually CT and VT) is to provide current

 Relays are the logic 2.2

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

 Independent delay  Direction

 Dependent delay  Frequency

to be operation in 4 milliseconds or less

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

provide a force to overcome the restraint, causing the contacts to change

 where K1 and K2 are adjusted by the magnetic shunts; K3 is a design

plane of a rotable aluminum disc.

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

Relé tiempo independ.

Relé tiempo independ. Relé tiempo

L.P.M. : Línea Par Máximo

 When a fault occurs, the voltage of the affected phase can be

voltage of the other phases, in order to avoid an incorrect

With external fault Id = 0  No trip

Internal fault = IA e IB are in phase reversal = Trip

 A tripping order for the 21

 STATION BUS PROTECTION

 In practice, the relay engineer must arrive at a compromise based on

 Voltage transformer locations, connections, and ratios Impedance of lines,

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