Looking Back at

Human
Biocultural and
Social Evolution
Biological and
Cultural
Evolution
 Biological and Cultural Evolution
• biological evolution of man refers to the long
evolutionary history of the human species from
primates to its current form, the Homo sapiens

• Evolution is the process of developing physical

and biological change in a species over a period
of time. It is not an overnight phenomenon. It took
millions of years to end up with the specific set of
biological traits that humanity presently has.
 The Transition
From Early to
Modern Humans
 Homo Habilis
(2.5 to 1.4 million years ago)
 Homo Habilis
(2.5 to 1.4 million years ago)
• It developed bipedalism or the ability to walk
upright
• Its brain size was estimated to be 35% larger than
the Australopithecus africanus’.
• It had similar teeth compared to
Australopithecines, the close relative species of
humans.
• Its diet included a variety of plants and meat
 Homo Erectus
(1.9 million years ago)
 Homo Erectus
(1.9 million years ago)
• The hand axes, one of the major innovations in
same tool era, was said to be made by the Homo
erectus
• They lived more on the ground and lost tree-
climbing adaptations.
• Some paleoanthropologists use the term Homo
ergaster (“working man”) for members of this
group found outside of Asia. A famous example of
a Homo erectus is the Peking man found in China
 Homo Erectus
(1.9 million years ago)
• The hand axes, one of the major innovations in
same tool era, was said to be made by the Homo
erectus
• They lived more on the ground and lost tree-
climbing adaptations.
• Some paleoanthropologists use the term Homo
ergaster (“working man”) for members of this
group found outside of Asia. A famous example of
a Homo erectus is the Peking man found in China
 Homo Sapiens
(400,000 thousand years ago to present)
 Homo Sapiens
(400,000 thousand years ago to present)
• It had very large brains and an average brain
capacity of 82 cubic inches
• It was characterized by high vertical forehead,
small teeth and jaw and defined chin
• It had a lighter skeletal built compared to earlier
humans.
• It constructed and used tools for survival
• It developed a symbolic communication system
Artifactual Evidences
 Artifactual Evidences
• Artifactual evidences are the only source of
knowledge in understanding the lifestyle and the
developments that occurred in each transitional
stage of human evolution.
• It can also include tools that are used for hunting
and gathering or symbolic writing found in caves.
• Early human species were discovered
through fossils which are remains preserved in
rock.
 Artifactual Evidences
• Examples:
• An antelope leg bone with cut marks was recently
discovered in Africa. This prehistoric tool served
as evidence for early hunting practices and
carnivorous diet among early stone-tool making
humans, the Oldowan hominin.
• A cave discovered in South Africa filled with
carbonized leaves and grasses made
archaeologists believe that cooking food was
practiced among early humans.
 Appreciating the Past through the
Present
• It is important for modern humans to learn about
their origins and developments. Nowadays,
technological advances has made
delving/exploring into the past more accessible.
Interactive and national museums, for example,
make great venues for learning more about the
prehistoric past. The great biological evolution that
the human species has been through is complex
and developmental. As human beings, we are
called to understand and appreciate these
advances.
 Cultural
Evolution of Man
 Cultural Evolution
• Explains the changes in the beliefs, knowledge,
customs, skills, attitudes, and languages of
humans over time. It proposes that as humans
transform themselves, their culture becomes
progressively complex due to social,
environmental, and biological factors.
 Cultural Evolution
• The cultural evolution of early humans can be
traced back to the beginning of the Stone
Age when they started creating and using tools
made out of stones. This is the earliest known
period of human culture which started roughly 2-3
million years ago and ended around 6000 and
3000 BCE. This period is also known as
the prehistoric period because writing was not
yet invented during this time.
 Stone Age /
Prehistoric Period
Old Stone Age (Paleolithic)
Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic)
New Stone Age (Neolithic)
Paleolithic Period
 Paleolithic Period
• the first phase of the Stone Age.

• This period started the creation and use of crude

stone tools which are the most primitive among
the three periods.

• The word "paleolithic" is derived from the Greek

words palaios (old) and lithos (stone) to
collectively mean "old stone age."
 Paleolithic Period
• The early humans who existed during this period
showed their skills with fire and stones that
changed their diet and food consumption.

• Hunting and fishing were the primary activities of

the early humans during the Paleolithic period.

• They also had their religious rituals based on

nature and developed their own language based
on sounds and hand signals.
 Mesolithic Period
• is the second phase of the Stone Age.

• It was considered as the transition period between

the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods.

• The word "mesolithic" is derived from the Greek

words mesos (middle) and lithos (stone) that
collectively mean "middle stone age."
Mesolithic Period
 Mesolithic Period
• Early humans during this period gradually
domesticated plants and animals.

• They also started to form their own settlements

and communities.

• Hunting, fishing, and food gathering were the

primary activities of the early humans.

• They also started to use microliths or smaller and

more delicate stone tools.
Neolithic Period
 Neolithic Period
• The word "neolithic" was derived from the Ancient
Greek words neos (new) and lithos (stone) that
collective translates to "new stone age.“

• The Neolithic period started during the last phase

of the Stone Age and at this point, modern
humans started to exist.

• From being food gatherers, they became food

producers and introduced the concept of farming.
 Neolithic Period
• They also became herders from being hunters
during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods.

• They crafted better stone tools and invented the

axe.Pots and jars were evident during this period
which served as their food containers and storage.

• Modern humans also formed their permanent

homes and started to have their own tribes and
villages.
 Sociopolitical
Evolution of Man:
Neolithic Revolution
 Neolithic Revolution
• The Paleolithic period saw humans as hunter-
gatherers in society.
• They were nomadic people who could easily
transfer from one area to another to hunt animals
or gather plants for consumption and survival.
• This had been the practice until around 12,000
BCE when humans started to domesticate
animals and crops.

• This era of this newfound lifestyle is called

the Neolithic Revolution.
 Neolithic Revolution
• From hunter-gatherers or nomads, people
became farmers through domestication,the
process of increasing human control in breeding
animals or plants to regulate certain traits that will
make them useful for other human needs.

• The domestication of animals and plants implied

that humans stayed in a particular area to enable
their resources to grow and expand. Some plants
and animals utilized for domestication included
wheat, barley, corn, nuts, cattle, goats, and sheep.
 Neolithic Revolution

• One of the first Neolithic societies recorded in

existence was Mesopotamia, which is at present,
the country of Iraq. It was believed that it
concurrently existed with other Neolithic societies
in China, the Americas, and Africa.
Neolithic Revolution
 Implications of the Neolithic
Revolution to the Evolutionary
Process
• The Neolithic Revolution facilitated an economic
and societal shift that paved the way for further
developments in the early human lifestyle. As
such, advances in different aspects of human life
started during this era.

• Sociopolitical, economic, and human

development.
 1. Sociopolitical Development

• The Neolithic revolution paved the way for the

creation of civilization through permanent
settlements dictated by reliable food supply.

• Development in domestication techniques and

practices allow for a more complex society and
the possibility for urbanization.
•  
 Evidence for the Existence of the
Neolithic Revolution
• There were morphology changes among Neolithic
people, including brain size and mandible and
simple dietary changes from solely eating plants
to consumption of meat.

• A subterranean structure in Abu-Hureyra, Syria

was found to have been built during the Neolithic
Revolution and served as a communal storage
facility.
 Evidence for the Existence of the
Neolithic Revolution
• Paleolithic people have fairly healthy teeth, but
during the Neolithic Revolution, there was an
increased caries rate. Neolithic teeth were also
more worn down and pitted, owing to hard
inclusions from poorly grounded flour.

• Molleson (1994) has proven that there were

changes in the bones of women that were task-
related and associated with cereal grinding.
•  
 Evidence for the Existence of the
Neolithic Revolution
 
•With the emergence of towns and cities came the
birth of trade and marketplaces. This led to the
economy and a hierarchical society with public
leaders and castes.

•A form of social stratification was developed. This

created the idea of inequality and ideas of social
power and influence.
 2. Economic Developments

 
•Because of the domestication of crops and animals,
abundant supplies of food and resources were
maintained.

•A selective breeding process of plants and animals

that would allow for the development of new species
was introduced.
 3. Biological Developments

 
•There was increase in lifespan and human
population across civilizations.

•People learned to play different social roles apart

from being farmers (e.g. craftsman, priest, leader).
 Sociopolitical
Evolution of Man:
Early Civilizations and
the Rise of the States
 The Rise of Civilizations

•  Civilizations began to develop during the Neolithic

period when the early humans learned to settle in
just one area to domesticate plants and animals
for survival.

• The first civilizations were found mostly in Asia,

particularly in China and Mesopotamia, now Iraq.
 The Rise of Civilizations
 
•Mesopotamia was part of the Fertile Crescent, an
area in the ancient Middle East that is believed to be
the “cradle of civilization” and the birthplace of
agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, and science
due to its fertile land area.

•This area housed two bodies of water, the

rivers Tigris and Euphrates, which were also
valuable resources for the early civilizations.
 The Rise of Civilizations
 
•During these periods, civilizations were mainly
agrarian societies that treated both genders equally
as the first labor only involved farming,
domestication, and harvesting. Though this may be
the case, social roles began to emerge, with some
members of the community becoming priests or
priestesses, laborers, and farmers.
 The Development of States
•  In Mesopotamia, in the region of Sumer in 4,000
BCE, two significant developments took place that
influenced the flow of the sociopolitical process of
the early civilizations. These were:
• the rise of states, and the invention of writing.
• Historians believe that these developments occurred
because of trades among different regions. The
early civilizations would have had some form of
writing to document or record traces of their
products and deals.
 Copper Age
(5,900-3,200 BCE)
•  the system of commerce grew with prosperity, leading to
the development of cities and changes in sociopolitical
positions with some civilizations promoting a kingship to
replace priestly rule.

• This was done to foresee the flow of trade and

negotiations with other regions.

• This era gave rise to numerous developments such as the

invention of the wheel and the transition from the use of
stone tools to copper tools.
 Implications of the Rise of
Civilizations ans States
• Warfare: Conflict and wars emerged among states as
tension grew among them. Soon, professional armies
and weaponry began to make their appearance.

• Metalwork: A huge development in metalwork

occurred along with the rise of civilizations and states.
During this time, people began to discover various raw
materials, such as iron, copper, and bronze for
making tools and weapons.
 Implications of the Rise of
Civilizations ans States

• Political system: Because of economic factors

such as trading, leadership among city-states
began to be more organized and developed. With
the kingship system replacing the priestly leaders,
each state had its executive branch that centralized
decisions and communications with other states.
 Evidence for the Existence of
Civilizations and States
Artifactual evidence prove the existence and
occurrence of early civilizations and states.

•In 1922, archaeologist Sir Leonard Wooley

discovered the remains of two four-wheeled wagons
that dated back to the time of Mesopotamia.
•Excavations in the 1840s revealed human
settlements in Mesopotamia during 10,000 BCE.
 Sociopolitical
Evolution of Man:
Democratization
 Democracy and Democratization
• Democratization refers to the spread or expansion of
democracy.
• Democracy means "rule by the people." The term comes
from the Greek words demos, which means "people,"
and kratos, which means "rule." While democracy is often
traced back to the Greeks, particularly the Athenian
democracy during 5th century BCE, a form of primitive
democracy is said to have existed during the hunting and
gathering period in independent tribes.
Democracy and Democratization
• Democratization refers to the spread or The form
of democracy during 500 BCE in city-states is said
to be a form of direct democracy where citizens
participate directly in decision-making.

• On the other hand, the evolved form of

democracy−−**representative democracy**−−that
became widespread in nation-states is where
officials are elected to represent a group of people.
 Historical Path to a Democratic
City State
• Agricultural developments in Asia and Africa eventually
spread to the nearby civilizations of Greece and Rome.
• Both Greeks and Romans adapted to the farming
culture developed by the Mesopotamians, even
following the latter’s sociopolitical structure of kingship.
• Eventually, they were able to engage in trade as their
resources highly developed and impacted
socioeconomic growth.
 Historical Path to a Democratic
City State
• Greece
• Societal status and groups began to develop:
– the king (bearing the highest position in all
Greek city-states),
– the aristocracies and noblemen, then
– the farmers.
 Historical Path to a Democratic
City State
• Wars were already occurring between city-states,
and tension grew between social classes.

• Greek kings had growing ambitions to transform

themselves into wealth-laden rulers just like their
predecessors from the Bronze Age.
 Historical Path to a Democratic
City State
• The need for power was not feasible as the primarily
abundant metal during the period was iron, a
relatively cheaper metal compared to bronze.
• If the king sought greater power, he would not be
able to do so easily since weaponry and machinery,
primarily made of iron, were much cheaper, and
could be afforded by practically anyone within the
city-state.
 Historical Path to a Democratic
City State
• In 750 BC, with high tension and alarm over the
intentions of the king, the noblemen gathered
together and ousted him, leading to a successful
establishment of the first republics.
 The Beginnings of
Democratization
• The developments in the Greek city-states led to
the birth of democracy and the rise of
democratization in societies.
 Oligarchy
• Greek Kings were deposed by the noblemen.
• City-states began to change the form of leadership
into oligarchy where rulers were from aristocratic families.
• Because of inexpensive and accessible weaponry and the
ongoing wars between city-states, even ordinary people like
the farmers learned to arm themselves and rebel against
drastic changes.
• The oligarchic government ruled in favor of the noblemen and
aristocracies, so ordinary people also used their collective
power against an abusive government.
 Tyranny
• Since there were few noble people in government, city-states, in
effect, were ruled by a tyrant, a positive term for a Greek leader
that means “boss.”
• Tyrants became effective in ensuring fair treatment for both land
owners and farmers.
• For some time, peace and equality emerged among social
classes.
• In the second generation of tyrant rule, however, the son of a
tyrant made some wrong and abusive decisions that eventually
lead to another revolution, ousting the tyrant rule.
 Birth of Democracy
• Because of the tyrant's abuse of power, intelligent leaders of
Greek city-states proposed that power must be held by the
common people.

• This led to the creation of a more broad-based constitution,

eventually developing the city-states to have a democratic
setting.

• In 594 BCE, Solon gave Athens a new constitution. This event

was considered as the rise of democracy in Greece.
 Birth of Democracy
• It should be noted, though, that not all Greek city-states
followed this ruling, especially the poorer, more
backward areas. Still, the political change in Greece
soon led Rome to follow a democratic ruling thereafter.

• Also, keep in mind that citizen participation in democratic

decision-making during this time was limited to males
and therefore, did not encompass the total population.
 Significance and Implications
of Democracy
• The development of democracy led to changes that greatly
impacted the ordinary people by reducing inequality and promoting
fair treatment for all. The beginnings of democratization in Greece
laid a foundation for modern-day democracy.
• Also, the establishment of a democratic government promoted
more cultural and artistic implications that eventually distinguished
Greek and Roman civilizations from any other ancient civilization.
 Significance and Implications
of Democracy
• Below are some artifactual evidences of the artistic and cultural implications
of democratization.

• Greek literature began its ascent as poet Homer created his epics,
the Iliad and the Odyssey.

• Stone temples that appeared as early as 600 BC were improved through

classical Greek structures upon the rise of democratization.