Ductility-Material, Sectional,

Structural: Seismic Sustenance

 Seismic Resistant Design-
Governing Design Principles
• The seismic energy dissipation should take
place in elements which posses adequate
ductility and are easy to repair. Beam
yielding is preferred in buildings and pier
yielding in bridges
• Seismic energy dissipation should take
place through flexure yield mechanism and
not a shear, bond-slip or anchorage failure.
 Seismic Resistant Design-
Governing Design Principles
(contd.)
• Joints-common area of adjacent elements should
not fail before the members attain the full strength.
• Reinforcement provided in RC sections to ensure
ductility should not hinder construction.
• Structural elements which for design purpose are
not considered as part of the seismic action
resisting system should be in a position to
maintain their load carrying capacity during a
strong earthquake.
Design Methodology: Multilevel
Criteria
• Three verification levels-serviceability,
damageability and survivability states need
to checked. This process is in four phases:
– Design seismic input evaluation
– Global analysis
– Local analysis
– Required vs. availability checking
 Seismic input evaluation
• Choice of ground motion acceleration for the three
limit states are a function of the return periods. If the
acceleration for the damageability limit state, ad , is
considered the basic value, accelerations for other limit
states are found from the return period (20, 475 and
970 years) as:
a / ad = (pr/prd)0.28 thus a-serviceability is 0.412 ad and a-
collapse is 1.22 ad.
• Spectra characteristics for the three states is a function
of the amplification β and the corner periods TB and TC.
Base Shear β(T)=0.8η/T1.1 β <3.25 Base Shear
Serviceability Limit state
F=as β(T)W/g F=ad β(T)W/gq
Damageability Limit state
β(T) β(T)=2.0Sη/T0.67 β <2.5

Ultimate Limit state

1.0 β(T)=1
Base Shear
F=au W/g
T(sec)
Design Spectra function of earthquake type
propagation effects and local conditions
Note: Corner TB not shown for steel structures TC
obtained from relationship on magnitude of
earthquake as log (Tc)= -1.76+0.31M
 Global analysis phase
• Evaluation of seismic shear force
distribution over structure height:
– Serviceability limit state – elastic response –
higher mode influence important – inverse
parabola
– Damageability limit state – decrease of superior
mode influence-some hinges formed – parabola
– Ultimate limit state – full mechanism formed –
inverted triangle distribution
 Global analysis phase (contd.)
• Preliminary design: Bad choice of configuration
can lead to a poor final design:
– Ordinary moment resisting frame without limits on
inter-story drift and verification on plastic mechanism
type
– Special moment resisting frame designed without
verifying plastic mechanism type.
– Global moment resisting frame designed to be able to
perform a global plastic mechanism- weak beam strong
column design
 Global analysis phase (contd.)
• Static structural analysis to be performed for each
phase with the dimensioned structure to assure
satisfaction of all three limit states. Serviceability
(elastic analysis), damageability (elasto-plastic
analysis-pushover) and survivability (mechanism).
• Corrections for high velocity (near field) and
cyclic action (far field) needs to be introduced.
Inter-story drift and plastic rotation increase due to
cyclic accumulation and high velocity strain rate
effects.
 Local analysis phase
• Global-local transfer- Complex structure sub-divided
into beams through inflection points. This further sub
divided into moment gradient and constant moment
zones.
• Determine the static available characteristics for the
three limit states- Serviceability limit state –
performance of nonstructural element performance
controls the inter-story drift. The damageability limit
state determines the cross-sectional strength capacities
as a function of geometrical and mechanical
properties.- About four times higher inter-story drift.
 Local analysis phase (contd.)
• Correction for the static available
characteristics as a function of earthquake
type- damageability – near field earthquakes
- high strain rates cause increase in plastic
moment while for far field earthquakes –
cyclic excursions reduce capacity.
• Required vs. availability – check on all three
limit states.
 Simplified-Pushover Method
• Lateral forces are increased to evaluate the
inelastic capacity of the structure. Results
defer from a time history analysis because:
– Structure behavior and seismic action interacts
constantly changing the lateral loads.
– Duration of the earthquake and cumulative
plastic rotation ignored.
– Two parameters –base shear and top drift -
cannot capture all the structure variations.
 Ductility
• Ductility is the capacity of the structure to
undergo high plastic deformation in some
predefined locations, ensuring protection of
the structure against collapse during a severe
earthquake.
• Global ductility: Determined at the level of
the structure in terms of displacements
μd=δu/δy
 Ductility (contd.)
• Local Ductility: Determined at the level of a
member in terms of plastic hinge rotations
as: μr=θu/θy
• Factors influencing ductility design are-
Maximum possible earthquake, foundation,
structure type mechanism type, material of
choice, cross-section, member, joint and
connections.
Factors Influencing Global Ductility
• Global ductility is influenced by the following
factors:
– Source(earthquake type, focal depth)
– Distance from source (Near and far field,
attenuation)
– Site (Soil Profile, amplification, duration)
– Foundation (Foundation type,base isolation)
– Structural system (Structure type, collapse
mechanism)
– Nonstructural elements ( interaction, damage
limits, collapse limits)
Factors Influencing Local Ductility
• Material(Steel grade, yield, randomness, strain-rate, concrete
strength, plastic strain accumulation)
• Cross-section (section type, wall slenderness, wall
interactions)
• Members (strain hardening,crushing, buckling, axial forces,
cyclic loads)
• Joint Panel (panel type, shear mechanism, crushing
mechanism)
• Column (flange type, plastic mechanism, crushing)
• Connections (type, plastic local mechanism, cyclic loading,
strain rate
 Plastic Hinge Growth in
Reinforced ConcreteDowrick 1989
• Reinforcement controls and
delays failure in concrete
members. Degradation in a
cyclic process initiated by
cracking in concrete,
progresses gradually due to
inelastic steel elongation in
cracks that prevents crack
closure, leading to
progressive crack widening,
steel yielding and failure Significant Stages of Plastic
Hinge Development of a
Plastic Hinge in Reinforced
concrete during flexure and
shear loading
 Stress-Strain Response in Concrete in Compression
σc=fc[1-Z(εc-εc1)]
Z=0.5/(εc50-εc1)

fc,dyn=fc,stat(έc/έc0)1.026as
as=1/(5+0.9fc)
έc1,dyn=έc1stat (έc/έc0)0.2
Stress strain curve of
concrete under uni-axial Analytical models for estimating
compression concrete stress-strain response under
uni-axial compression
Penelis and Kappos 1997
 Ductility in Reinforced concrete Members

Dowrick 1989
For First yield in an under-reinforced singly reinforced section
the curvature is
Φy=εsy/[d(1-k)] = fy/[Es(1-k)d] where k = [(ρn)2 + 2 ρn]0.5 – ρn
and n is the modular ratio Es/Ec. This is true for concrete in the
linear region (70% of f’c). However, this has been shown to hold
for stresses as high as f’c. The curvature at ultimate Φu=εcu/c=
β1εcu/a where a= Asfy/(0.85f’cb) and β1= 0.85 describes the size
of the equivalent rectangular stress block. Thus ductility of a
singly reinforced section is: Φu/ Φy= εcud(1-k)Es/cfy
For doubly reinforced section the ductility may be
expressed as:
Φu/ Φy= εcud(1-k)Es/cfy
where k = [{((ρ+ ρ’) n)2 + 2[ ρ+ ρ’ (d’/d)]n}0.5 – (ρ+ ρ’)
n], n is the modular ratio Es/Ec and ρ’ is the percentage of
compression steel Asc/bd. The value c for doubly
reinforced sections is :
c=(ρ- ρ’)fyd/(0.85f’cβ1)
If compression steel does not yield the actual stress in
these rebars needs to be used in place of fy
 Ductility:
•Decreases with
increasing tension steel
•Increases with
increasing compression
steel
•Reduces with increasing
yield stress

Dowrick 1989

Variation of Curvature Ductility ratio for single

and doubly reinforced unconfined concrete
 Effect of Confinement on Concrete

Maximum confined compressive

Modified Kent and Park Stress-
strain Model for concrete in
compression (curves a,b,c confined
and curve d unconfined)
Strain εcu=0.003+0.02(b/lc)+
(ρyfyy/138)2
B/lc is the ratio of beam width to
distance of critical section from
point of contra flexure, ρy is the
ratio of the volume of confining
steel to the volume of concrete
confined and fyy is the yield
stress of the confining steel
Dowrick 1989
Curvature Ductility Ratio for columns
with confined or unconfined concrete Curvature Ductility Ratio for
Columns of Confined
Dowrick 1989 Concrete
 Effect of cyclic loading on concrete

Stress-strain response of Idealized Stress-strain curve

concrete cylinders subjected to for concrete subjected to cyclic
repeated uni-axial compression loading
with full unloading Stiffness degradation takes place for
εc>εcl and is given by
Penelis and Kappos 1997
F =0.8 – 0.7(εcm-εcl)/ (εc20-εcl ) >= 0.1
Εcm maximum strain at unloading, εc20
is strain corresponding to 80% stress
Idealized stress-strain curve
for concrete under cyclic
tension Biaxial Failure envelope for
concrete
Penelis and Kappos 1997
Concrete under multi-axial stress
• Under Bi-axial compression the strength of
concrete increases by over 25% for stress
ratio of 0.5 and by 16% for a stress ratio of 1.
• Under Bi-axial Tension the stress ratio has no
influence on strength.
• Under Bi-axial Tension – compression the
compressive strength decreases with
increasing tensile strength.
Stress-strain response of concrete
under biaxial compression

Stress-strain response of
concrete under biaxial tension

Stress-strain response of
concrete under biaxial tension- Penelis and Kappos 1997
compression
 Biaxial Model
 Ey  Ex E y 0 
1  
    2  Ex E y E y 0   

1  
0
 0  
1  2 G
 
E x  E y  2 E x E y
G
4(1   2 )

Definition of equivalent uniaxial strain

E equivalent uniaxial = E/(1-(stress ratio) υ)

 E1 0
        equivalent uniaxial
0 E2  Penelis and Kappos 1997
 Biaxial strength envelope for
monotonic and cyclic loading

Stress-strain response of concrete

under biaxial cyclic loading Equivalent uniaxial curve for cyclic
Penelis and Kappos 1997 loading
Failure Modes of concrete Triaxial failure surface

Penelis and Kappos 1997

 Effect of confinement of
Typical stress-strain curve for
concrete – triaxial stress-
plain concrete under triaxial
states
compression

Penelis and Kappos 1997

Parameters affecting confinement
• Ratio of transverse reinforcement: This is expressed
as the ratio of volume of hoop steel to the volume of the
confined core of the member.
• Yield strength of the transverse reinforcement:
Higher the yield strength of the transverse steel, higher
is the confinement. Strain hardening effects are ignored
in this process.
• Concrete compressive strength: Higher the
compressive strength, lower is the ductility. Moreover,
lower strength concrete expands more under axial
loading leading to enhanced ductility.
Parameters affecting confinement
(contd.)
• Spacing of Hoops: Efficiency of the confinement
improves with reduction in the spacing between
hoop steel rebars.
• Hoop Pattern: When multiple patterns of hoop is
used, region of unconfined concrete reduces.
• Longitudinal Steel: Closely spaced longitudinal
steel enhances confinement. Larger diameter rods
further enhances the confinement.
Parameters affecting confinement
(Contd.)
• Rate of Loading: An increase in the strain rate, as
in seismic loading, increases the strength of
concrete and a reduction in the corresponding
strain resulting in steeper slope in the descending
branch of stress-strain – lower ductility.
• Strain gradient:Eccentric axial load does not
influence concrete strength but improves the
ductility.
 Penelis and Kappos 1997

Confinement due to transverse stresses induced by

lateral reinforcement - columns
ε cc1 = K2 εc1 (peak strain)
K=1+ρwfyw/fc The descending strain is: Z = 0.5/(ε cc50 – ε cc1 )
K=1+α(ωw)β ε cc,50 = [(3+0.29fc)/(145fc-1000)] +0.75ρw(bc/s)0.5
Single hoop: α=0.55, β =0.75
Double hoop: α=1.0, β =1.0
Multiple loop: α=1.25, β =1.0
Stress strain diagram for confined Effect of different types of
concrete with varying levels of hoop reinforcement on axial
steel. load load deformation
Penelis and Kappos 1997
 Requirements on steel rebars
for seismic performance
1. Strain in steel at fracture
should be sufficiently large
so that ductility of RC
section is assured.
2. Yield stress of steel should
not be significantly higher as
this would allow shear force
build up higher than
designed.
Modeling of cyclic loading 3. Adequate composite action
behavior of steel of steel bars with
surrounding concrete should
Penelis and Kappos 1997 develop even in regions of
inelasticity.
Bond mechanism between Primary (flexural) cracks
concrete and steel and Bond cracks and forces
Penelis and Kappos 1997 acting on concrete
surrounding a bar
Factors influencing Bond under cyclic
loading
• Concrete compressive strength
• Cover thickness and bar spacing
• Bar size-diameter
• Anchorage length
• Geometry of bar deformations-ribs
• Steel yield strength
• Amount and position of transverse steel
• Casting position –vibration/revibration
• Strain or stress range
• Type and rate of loading
• Temperature
• Surface condition-coating on rebars
Effect of Lateral Pressure on local Bond-slip relation
Penelis and Kappos 1997
 CEB Model for Bond stress-slip
1. Confined concrete: S1=1mm,
S2=3mm, s3=rib spacing.
τmax=2.5(fck )0.5 for good
concrete and τf=0.4 τmax
Local Bond stress-slip curves for
cyclic loading of confined concrete 2. unconfined concrete:
S1=0.6mm =S2=3mm, s3=
Penelis and Kappos 1997 2.5mm τmax =2.0(f ck )0.5
for good
concrete and τf=0.15 τmax
 Precast Concrete Elements Dowrick 1989

Site bolted-Moment transfer by bolts

Connections for base and precast Site Concreted and welded

concrete columns with grouting and links fixed
Dowrick 1989
Variation of Ductility ratio in Prestressed concrete sections
In Prestressed Concrete Sections adequate ductility can be realized if :
1. Control the depth of the rectangular compressive stress block to
20% of section depth. Use multiple tendons for better ductility.
2. Continuity ensured by proper lapping. Decongest anchorage zones
and locate away from hinging zones.