L1 ML Waves I

Waves-L1
Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Waves – General contents
Chapter I: Wave Phenomena - Introduction and Concepts
Chapter II: Examples of D'Alembert Wave equations
Chapter III: Waves Superposition
Chapter IV: Wave Interferences
5 Magistral Lectures (7.5 hours) and 5 Tutorials (7.5 hours)
Detailled plan of lecture on Moodle in L1 UFAZ Physics 2

Waves – General contents
HOW TO WORK THIS TOPIC ??
• The contents are big compared to the number of hours. One can cover
everything only with help of slides.
• A lot of new informations will be given in a short time.
• It will be difficult even to take note during the presentation. You can
try.
• The advice is to follow the lecture as much as you can, and AFTER,
working ACTIVELY with the slides by rewritting the development and
making your own lecture.

1) General examples
a. Mechanical perturbation
b. Electrical perturbation
Chapter I. c. Electromagnetic perturbation
2) Propagation of a perturbation
a. Wave front – Huygens-Fresnel principle
Wave Phenomena - b. 1D Mathematical modelisation
Introduction and Concepts c. D'Alembert wave equation
d. Directions of propagation
3) Harmonic Propagating 1D vibration
a. One parameter harmonic function
b. Propagating Waves
d. Dispersion relation
e. About 2D and 3D Waves
4) Stationary (Standing) Waves
a. Mathematical description
b. Physical interpretation
c. Examples
5) Nature and Structure of Waves
a. Mechanical and Electromagnetic
b. Longitudinal and Transverse
c. Polarization
d. Some words about “Wave tank: PW5”

I.1) General examples a) Mechanical perturbation
The common picture…..
Circular Waves at surface of water Electromagnetic waves
Wave: propagation of a perturbation in space and time

Example 1: a spring
extension

Example 2: acoustic waves – vibration of the air molecules
Wavelength λ
λ λ
compression extension

Wavelength λ
Period T
Frequency f
Velocity v
λ T
space time
vsound ≈ 340 m/s in Air (depends on Temp)
Auditive field f [20 hz, 20 103 Hz]

Which sound frequencies
f(La)=440 Hz

Example 3: a vibrating string or rope
Clean sinusoid…
Any perturbation…

Example 3: a vibrating string….stringed instruments

Example 4: other devices and phenomena
Seismic Waves…..

I.1) General examples a) Electrical perturbation
Electrical Propagation
Example: the electric wire…old story

I.1) General examples a) Electromagnetic perturbation
Electromagnetic Propagation

I.1) General examples a) Electromagnetic perturbation
Electromagnetic spectrum
In the vaccum, velocity is the speed of the light c=299 792 458 m/s ≈ 3*108 m/s

I.1) General examples
Not only nice sinusoidal waves…. also a perturbation
Mechanical signal…
Electrical signal in
neuronic network…

1) General examples
c. Examples
c. Polarization

I.2) Propagation of a perturbation a) Wave-front-Huygens –Fresnel principle
The perturbation propagates

Wave front (or Wave surface) is a surface where the the phase of the wave (and
consequently its amplitude) has the same value. One can talk about equiphase surfaces.
In that picture, wave fronts are the circumferences of a circle whose center is the source.
In a given direction, any point of the perturbation belongs to a different wave front.
It may represent the state of perturbation.

3D isotropic emission, the waves are spherical
The wave-front are the surface of spheres

Evolution of a spherical wavefront
Far from the source, localy on the wave surface, one can have a planar wave front
Equiphase surface become planes
L<< D
D Localy …a plane wave

Example of a planar wave front
Wave fronts are perpendicular to propagation direction
Plane Wave Convergent Spherical Wave

How wave propagates ?

Observation with a wave tank (PW 5)
Spherical wave-front Planar wave-front

Evolution of planar wave-front when we let a small opening
Rigid object that

blocks the propagation
At the position of the opening, the wave reacts like a ponctual secondary source
emitting also spherical waves

Evolution of planar wave-front when we let a small opening

Light propagates …step by step
S
P
Christiaan Huygens dΣ
Augustin Fresnel
1629-1685 1788-1827
Σ
Σ’
Be a wave surface Σ and a wave source S. Any point P of Σ reached by the wave emitted
in S behaves like a fictive secondary source emiting a spherical wave.
Amplitude emited in P is proportionnal to amplitude of incident wave and to elementary surface

dΣ. The wave emitted by the different elementary surfaces have the same phase φ.
They are coherent.
The waves emitted in P create a new wave surface Σ’.

I.1) Propagation of a perturbation b) Wave-front-Huygens –Fresnel principle
Light propagates …step by step
Christiaan Huygens Augustin Fresnel

1629-1685 1788-1827
Decomposition of a plane Wave

In this lecture we will work mainly with 1 dimension phenomena and Planar front.
i) far from a 3D emitting source
ii) for a given angular direction. HOW TO DO ?

LET’s look in one direction of an isotropic propagation
Ox axis

LET’s look in one direction of an isotropic propagation
amplitude
Ox axis
Propagating wave through x<0 Propagating wave through x>0

I.2) Propagation of a perturbation b) 1-D Mathematical modelisation
HOW to model the phenomena with mathematics ?
First case: just a perturbation…
…that we could model by Gaussian function.

I.2) Propagation of a perturbation b) 1-D Mathematical modelisation
Let us consider a Gaussian shape F(u) that propagates

without attenuation (A=cte) at constant velocity v. The
perturbation has a gaussian shape
How to connect to space-and time propagation ?

We consider an observer that follows the motion at
the same constant velocity v. He has the following
motion equation
• Let us write u=x-vt and F(u)=F(x-vt)=A exp (-(x-vt)2) can represent a gaussian propagation
at velocity v.
• In general, any function of F(x-vt) denotes a propagation along x>0 at velocity
v.

I.2) Propagation of a perturbation c) D’Alembert Wave equation
With following relation between parameters
Spatial derivatives (with respect to x)

First order
Jean Le Rond D’Alembert
1717-1783
Second order
Redo at home by
Time derivatives (with respect to t)
writting your self !!
First order
Second order

From previous study we can write the following equality
Jean Le Rond D’Alembert

1717-1783
Leading to the so-called D’Alembert equation or D’Alembert Wave equation
1 Dimension D’Alembert wave equation for a function F(x-vt) propagating through

x>0 at constant velocity v.

Exercises to practice at home:
Show that the following functions are solution of the Wave equation
i) A gaussian function
ii) Any function like
iii) Any function like with k belong to ℤ
iv) A function like

I.2) Propagation of a perturbation d) Directions of propagation
Let us consider two signals
F(x-vt) implies u=x-vt=const and so motion equation x=vt+u goes to x>0
F(x+vt ) implies u=x+vt=const and so motion equation x=u -vt goes to x<0
Motions equations
Motion of the perturbation
F(x+vt) is propagation through x<0 F(x-vt) is propagation through x>0

1) General examples
c. Examples
c. Polarization

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 1D Vivration a) One parameter harmonic function
Oscillation in the time f(t)
f(t)=A cos (ωt+φ) f(t+T)=f(t) T
= Acos(2πt/T+ φ)
t
ω : angular frequency in (rad.s-1)

T: period (in s)
f=1/T frequency (in Hz=s-1) represents how many periods in 1 second
Oscillation in the space
f(x)=A cos (kx+φ) f(x+λ)=f(x)

=Acos(2πx/λ+φ)
f(x)
λ
k : angular wave vector in (rad.m-1) x

λ: wavelength or spatial period (in s)
σ=1/ λ wave number (in m-1)

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 1D Vivration a) One parameter harmonic function
Influence of parameters Influence of amplitude A
f(t)=A cos (ωt+φ)

A=1.5, ω=1, φ=0
Influence of ang. frequency ω
A=3, ω=2, φ=0

Influence of phase φ
A=3, ω=1, φ=0
A=3, ω=1, φ=π

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 1D Vivration b) Propagating harmonic waves
HOW TO BUILD A SPACE-AND- TIME HARMONIC FUNCTION ?
•cos X is a real number (without dimension or unit) ; X is a real number without unit.
•[X] No Unit and in cos (ωt) , quantity [ωt] = s-1 .s has no unit.
•How to build an harmonic propagating function ?
•F(x-vt) is a propagating function BUT x-vt has a dimension of a distance.
•F(k(x-vt)) with k belong to ℤ is also a propagating function (solution of D’Alemembert)
•F(-u) is also solution so F(k(vt-x)) is also solution
•Let’s put dimension of [k]=m-1 ; so quantitiy (kx-kvt) has no dimension

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 1D Vivration b) Propagating Waves
Propagating monochromatic wave through x>0
F(x,t)=A cos( ωt – kx+φ)
Propagating monochromatic wave through x<0
F(x,t)=A cos( ωt + kx+ φ)

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 1D Vivration c) Dispersion relation
Let us consider a propagating wave like:

And we plug it into the D’Alembert wave equation
Calculation of partial derivatives
DISPERSION
RELATION
PHASE VELOCITY vφ

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 1D Vivration c) Dispersion relation
When the wave propagates without interaction with the medium (non dispersive), the
dispersion relation gives a linear relation between ω and k ; the phase velocity vφ is
constant. ω
Example: electromagnetic wave in vaccum.

All frequencies propagates at the same velocity c. k
(we will use the word frequency for ω or for f indifferently)
When the wave interacts with the medium, the dispersion relation the wave velocity vφ can
be different for each frequency ω. The medium is called as dispersive.
Example:
electromagnetic wave in a prism. k

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 3D Vivration d) About 2D and 3D Waves
2D and 3D… waves…
Wave vector
kx (1D) is replaced by kxx+kyy+kzz (3D)

It is a scalar product

I.3) Harmonic Propagation 3D Vivration b) Propagating Waves
Spherical waves observed in the plane
Convergent spherical waves Divergent spherical waves

1) General examples
c. Examples
c. Polarization

I.4) Stationary (Standing) Waves a) Mathematical description
Standing Wave
does not propagate, it stands
Oscillations in space and time are separated
Temporal evolution Spatial evolution

How to justify it ?
We look for a solution of F(x,t) where the space x and time t can be separated. Let us
postulate a function like
F(x,t)=f(t) g(x)
When plugging into the D’Alembert equation
we obtain
Separation of x and t parameters

No need of partial derivatives

And it appears than this equation can NOT depends on x and on t simultaneously, so it is
a constant : Const
We take the constant to be negative (justification later) and by writting Const=-k2 we

obtain two second order differential equations, whose solutions are harmonic functions.
And
solution
solution
Finally since F(x,t)=f(t) g(x) we obtain with C=A*B:

WHY A NEGATIVE CONSTANT ?
If the constant is positive, both differential equations would be like
g’’(x) – k2 x= 0 where g’’(x) is the second order derivative. Solution of such equation is
obtained by plugging g(x)=exp(rx) leading to the condition r2=k2 so r=k or r=-k.
Divergence at x infinite, can not

represent a wave, Physically incorrect
If the constant is negative , we have g’’(x) + k2 x= 0 and by plugging g(x)=exp(rx)

we obtain the condition r2=-k2 so r=ik or r=-ik are imaginary numbers
Periodic function, can represent a

wave, Physically correct.

No need of partial derivatives

And it appears than this equation can NOT depends on x and on t simultaneously, so it is
a constant : Const
We take the constant to be negative (justification later) and by writting Const=-k2 we

obtain two second order differential equations, whose solutions are harmonic functions.
And
solution
solution
Finally since F(x,t)=f(t) g(x) we obtain with C=A*B:

Standing Wave
Several « photos »
at t=0 and T
at t=0, T/8 and 7T/8
at t=T/4 and 3T/4
at t=0, 3T/8 and 5T/8
at t=0, T/2
Node: position where amplitude is always zero

Anti-node: position where are the minima and the maxima

We determine the
positions for nodes
and anti-nodes with
the spatial function
Anti-nodes positions
Nodes positions
You may check at home

Distance between two nodes; Distance between 2 anti-nodes; Distance between node and anti-node

I.4) Stationary (Standing) Waves b) Physical interpretation
Let us consider two propagating waves going in opposite directions
And consider the sum
Using the trigonometric relation

We obtain
Math form of standing wave

I.4) Stationary (Standing) Waves b) Physical interpretation
Standing Wave
Sum of two propagating waves going in opposite directions….

I.4) Stationary (Standing) Waves c) Examples
Examples:
Some Music instruments
Driven string oscillations
Quantum description of electrons in atoms

1) General examples
c. Examples
c. Polarization

I.5) Nature and Structure of waves a) Mechanical and Electromagnetic waves
Mechanical waves need a material medium to propagate

-Water waves, sound waves, string, spring vibrations
They involve mechanical energy: kinetic, potential elastic or gravitational
Electromagnetic waves can propagate in a medium BUT also in the vaccum

- Light, radio waves, IR, UV, electric cables
They involve electromagnetic energy: potentiel electric, magnetic

I.5) Nature and Structure of waves b) Longitudinal and Transverse waves
Example:
Vibration occurs perpendicular

to the propagation direction
Vibration occurs in parallel

to the propagation direction
Transverse and Longitudinal waves can be for BOTH mechanical and electromagnetic waves

I.5) Nature and Structure of waves c) Polarization
Transverse electromagnetic field can be polarized.

The polarization is given by the direction of the electric field
One can distinguish
Linear polarization. The electric field

amplitude oscillate along one direction
during the wave propagation
Circular polarization (left or right). The

electric field amplitude oscillate by
describing a circle during the wave
propagation. It exists also Elliptical
poalrization.
Non polarized light. Each photon has an

electric field having a random direction.
(example: Sun light) Non-polarized light

I.5) Nature and Structure of waves c) Polarization
We can use polarizer to fix the direction of the electric field
In the PW 7, the use of polarizer is for decreasing the amplitude of the light.
First polarizer gives a direction to the electric field

Second polarizer, called analyser is tilted from an angle compared to the first one.

I.5) Nature and Structure of waves d) Some words about « Wave Tank: PW5 »
Propagation is not easy to describe and a complete

study takes into account:
i) water depth (profondeur)
ii) gravity phenomena
iii) capilarry phenomena
The phase velocity is not constant and depends on the wavelength (or the frequency). The medium is
dispersive and the dispersion relation ω(k) is not linear.

Demonstration is not easy and at your level you need knowledges in Fluid Mechanics not teached
yet, like Euler equation (Newton equation for fluids)
We will give only the ingredients. Water waves illustrates a competition between two phenomena
Gravity VS Capilarity
Capilarity involves a surface energy.

U=σS (σ in J/m2 or N/m)
For instance at the interface of two (or three)
media. It can bend the surface of a liquid.
We can define a quantity the capillary

length to determine the characteristic
distance for which the capillar effects
are important.

General formula
Limit cases of the general situation
In water tank, capillary

effects are important

SUMMARY
Functions like F(x+vt) and F(x-vt) can describe a propagation.
They are solutions of the D’Alembert Equation
We make the distinction between two types of Waves
Propagating waves
Standing Waves

1) General examples
c. Electromagnetic perturbation
b. 1D Mathematical modelisation
c. D'Alembert wave equation
TO WORK AND LEARN 3) Harmonic Propagating 1D vibration
IMPERATIVLY a. One parameter harmonic function
TO SURVIVE IN THIS b. Propagating Waves
LECTURE d. Dispersion relation
c. Examples
c. Polarization

YOU CAN START TO WORK ON TUTORIAL
Exercise 1 and 2.
…………………………………………………..

L1 ML Waves I

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Waves-L1

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Chapter I: Wave Phenomena - Introduction and Concepts

Chapter II: Examples of D'Alembert Wave equations

Chapter III: Waves Superposition

Chapter IV: Wave Interferences

5 Magistral Lectures (7.5 hours) and 5 Tutorials (7.5 hours)

Detailled plan of lecture on Moodle in L1 UFAZ Physics 2

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

HOW TO WORK THIS TOPIC ??

• A lot of new informations will be given in a short time.

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

The common picture…..

Circular Waves at surface of water Electromagnetic waves

Wave: propagation of a perturbation in space and time

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Example 2: acoustic waves – vibration of the air molecules

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Auditive field f [20 hz, 20 103 Hz]

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Which sound frequencies

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Example 3: a vibrating string or rope

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Example 3: a vibrating string….stringed instruments

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Example 4: other devices and phenomena

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Example: the electric wire…old story

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Not only nice sinusoidal waves…. also a perturbation

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

The perturbation propagates

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

3D isotropic emission, the waves are spherical

The wave-front are the surface of spheres

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Evolution of a spherical wavefront

Equiphase surface become planes

D Localy …a plane wave

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Example of a planar wave front

Wave fronts are perpendicular to propagation direction

Plane Wave Convergent Spherical Wave

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

How wave propagates ?

Spherical wave-front Planar wave-front

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Evolution of planar wave-front when we let a small opening

Rigid object that

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Evolution of planar wave-front when we let a small opening

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Light propagates …step by step

Amplitude emited in P is proportionnal to amplitude of incident wave and to elementary surface

The waves emitted in P create a new wave surface Σ’.

Institut de Physique et Ingénierie

Light propagates …step by step