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 Predefined word(s) that instruct the computer


to perform some task.
 Different programming languages have their

own set of instructions to carry out different


tasks.
 Also called statements.

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 In computing, a program is a specific set of
ordered operations for a computer to
perform.
 Program is a sequence of instructions, written

to perform a specified task with a computer.

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The process of developing and implementing
various sets of instructions to enable a
computer to do a certain task.
 These instructions are considered computer

programs and help the computer to operate


smoothly.

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 A programming language is a set of rules
that provides a way of telling a computer
what operations to perform.

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 English is a natural language. It has words,
symbols and grammatical rules.
 A programming language also has words,

symbols and rules of grammar.


 The grammatical rules are called syntax.
 Each programming language has a different

set of syntax rules.

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◦ Low-level languages
◦ High-level languages

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 It is a programming language that deals with
a computer's hardware components and
constraints.
 It may also be referred to as a computer’s

native language.. 
 Programs written in low-level language are

directly executable on the computing


hardware without any interpretation or
translation.

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 low level language is machine language which
are not understandable by the programmer or
say user
 this is in the form of 0's & 1's or symbolic

codes
 totally machine dependable
 vary from computer to computer.

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 Faster execution
 No need of language translator

Disadvantage
 Machine dependent
 Hard /difficult to program.
 Difficult to debug.

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 It can be further divided into 2 types:
◦ Machine language(1Gl)
◦ Assembly language(2Gl)

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 Uses binary number system
 0s and 1s for electricity off / on
 Machine language is machine dependent as
it is the only language the computer can
understand.
 Very complex for coding
 No need of language translator so faster in
execution

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Symbolic operation codes (mnemonics
codes) replaced binary operation codes.
Assembly language programs needed to
be “assembled” for execution by the
computer. Each assembly language
instruction is translated into one machine
language instruction ,
Very efficient code and easier to write
More standardize and easier than
machine language

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• The high-level languages are much closer to human
language.
• It is an English like language.
• A programming language such as C, FORTRAN or
Pascal that enables to write programs which is
understandable to programmer (Human) and can perform
any sort of task, such languages are considered high-level
because they are closer to human languages.
• High level language must use interpreter or compiler
(language translator) to convert human understandable
program to computer readable code (machine code).
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 Easy to learn
 Easy to find errors
 Machine-Independent
 Shorter Programs
 Well-Defined Syntax and Standard
 Source code understandable by any other

programer

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•These are simple to adopt due to their english like
structure of statements.
•They are easy to maintain and debug.

Disadvantages
•The Program written in high level language are less efficient
as they take more execution time.
•The compiler also consumes some memory as it is required

for the translation process.

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 PROCEDURE ORIENTED LANGAUGE(3GL)
 PROBLEM ORIENTED LANGUAGE(4GL)
 NATURAL LANGUAGE(5GL)

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 This programming language uses the list of
computer instructions to tell the computer what to
do step by step.
 General purpose programming languages are
called procedural languages or third generation
languages e.g.. Pascal, Cobol, Fortran, Basic etc.
 Statements are in English, easy to work
 Programs written 3GL require more memory and run more slowly
than those written in lower level languages.
 English language so it takes less time to program
 Once coded easy to understand and modify
 Languages are machine independent
 Needs translator to convert it into machine codes.

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 Problem oriented (4GL) that requires fewer
instructions to accomplish a task than a
procedure oriented language(3GL).
 It is designed to solve specific problems or
develop specific application by enabling
what you want rather than step by step
procedures
 Used with databases
 examples
◦ Query languages(oracle, MY-SQL, etc)
◦ Application generators(c++,java, etc)

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 Still in development stage
 It is the natural more human like
 Allow the computer to become smarter
 Most popular natural language are LISP and

Prolog.
 It is used in the field of robotics, experts

system, defense system, etc.

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Any program that is not written in machine language has to
be translated in machine language before it is executed by the
computer. Language translator is a system software that
translate the language written in Assembly language or high
level language into the machine code.
There are three types of translator programs.
 Assembler,

 Compiler and

 Interpreter

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• An Assembler is a language translator that coverts the
program written in assembly language into the machine
code.

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• an interpreter is a language translator that converts the
source code written in high level language into the
machine code one line at a time.

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•A compiler is a language translator that coverts
the source code written in high level language
into the machine code(object code) at once.
•Machine code is called object code and can be
saved and either run immediately or later.

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Complier Interpreter
1. It translate the whole program 1. It converts one line or single
into object code. statement of a program into the
object code at a time.
2.It traps the errors after compiling 2. It traps the errors after
the complete program. translating a line of the program at
a time.
3. The translation process is faster. 3. The translation process is
slower.
4. It saves the object code for 4. It does not save the object code.
future reference.
5. It is usually larger program and 5. It is usually smaller program and
requires larger memory space. requires less memory space.
6.Examples of complier based 6. Examples of interpreter based
programming language are C, C+ programming languages are BASIC,
+, Java, Pascal, FORTAN etc. C#, PHP etc.
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 An operation is an action performed on one
or more values either to modify the value
held by one or both of the variables or to
produce a new value by combining variables.
 Therefore, an operation is performed using

at least one symbol and one value.


 The symbol used in an operation is called an

operator.
 A variable or a value involved in an operation

is called an operand.

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 Simple answer can be given using
expression 4 + 5 is equal to 9. Here 4 and 5
are called operands and + is called operator.
Some common type of operators are:
 Arithmetic Operators
 Logical and Relational Operators

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Operator Description Example
+ Adds two operands A + B will give 30

- Subtracts second A - B will give -10


operand from the first
* Multiply both operands A * B will give 200

/ Divide numerator by B / A will give 2


denumerator
% Modulus Operator and B % A will give 0
remainder of after an
integer division

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== Checks if the value of two operands is (A == B) is not
equal or not, if yes then condition true.
becomes true.
!= Checks if the value of two operands is equal (A != B) is true.
or not, if values are not equal then condition
becomes true.
> Checks if the value of left operand is greater (A > B) is not true.
than the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true.
< Checks if the value of left operand is less than (A < B) is true.
the value of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true.

>= Checks if the value of left operand is (A >= B) is


greater than or equal to the value of
right operand, if yes then condition not true.
becomes true.
<= Checks if the value of left operand (A <= B) is true.
is less than or equal to the value
of right operand, if yes then
condition becomes true. 29
&& Called Logical AND operator. If (A && B) is
both the operands are non zero true.
then the condition becomes
true.
|| Called Logical OR Operator. If any (A || B) is
of the two operands is non zero true.
then then condition becomes true.

! Called Logical NOT Operator. Use to !(A && B) is


reverses the logical state of its operand. If false
a condition is true then Logical NOT
operator will make false.

&& Called Logical AND operator. If (A && B) is


both the operands are non zero true.
then the condition becomes true.
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  It  is a classification identifying one of various
types of data, such as real, integer or Boolean.
 It is a set of data with values having predefined

characteristics.
 Some of common data types are
 integers,
 Booleans,
 characters,
 floating-point numbers,
 alphanumeric strings.

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 Variables
 A variable is something that may change in

value.
 Those quantity whose values are changed
during program execution is called variable
 A variable might be the number of words on

different pages of this booklet, the air


temperature each day, or the exam marks
given to a class of school children.
 The general form of the declaration of integer

variables is:
 INTEGER namel, name2

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 Constants are quantities whose values do not
change during program execution
 Example
 Area=3.14*r *r where 3.14 is constant.

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Programme
&
Logic

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Program Logic:
 It is the method or technique to process a program in
which user write program with reasons, techniques and
methods known as program logic.

 The best program is one which has the fast execution


and easily changeable logic according to environment.

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 Algorithm
 Flowchart
 Pseudo code

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 An algorithm is defined as a step-by-step
sequence of instructions that must terminate
and describe how the data is to be processed
to produce the desired outputs.
 Algorithms are a fundamental part of
computing.

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 A set of step-by-step instructions to
accomplish a task.
 Point to remember while writing an algorithm

◦ An algorithm must have start instruction


◦ Each instruction must be precise.
◦ Each instruction must be unambiguous.
◦ Each instruction must be executed in finite time.
◦ An algorithm must have stop instruction.

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• Flowchart is a visual/pictorial
representation of the sequence of the
instructions to solve a problem/task.
• In short we can say it is a diagrammatic
representation of an algorithm
• It shows what comes first, second, third and
used to
Analyzing,
Designing,
Documenting ,
and Managing a process or program

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 System flowchart
 Program flowchart

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Program flowchart : A program flowchart
details the flow through a single program.
 Each box in the flowchart will represent a

single instruction or a process within the


program. 

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 Example 1: - Draw flow chart of an algorithm
to add two numbers and display their result.
 start
 Read two numbers (A and B)
 Add A and B
 Assign the sum of A and B to C
 Display the result ( c)
 stop

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Start

Read A, B

C= A+B

Print C

End

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 Example 3: - Write the algorithmic description
and draw a flow chart to find the following sum.
 Sum = 1+2+3+…. + 50
 Algorithmic description
 1. Initialize sum too and counter to 1
◦ If the counter is less than or equal to 50
  
◦ • Add counter to sum
◦ • Increase counter by 1
◦ • Repeat step 1.1
◦ Else
 • Exit
  
 2. Write sum

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Step 1:start
step 2: Read two numbers (A and B)
Step 3:C = A + B
step : 4Display the result ( c)
Step : 5Stop

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Start

Read A, B

C= A+B

Print C

End

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Start

read number n

Is(n
mod
true 2==0)
false

Print n is even Print n is odd

End

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2)system flowchart : A system flowchart shows
a broad view of the data flow and sequence of
operation in a system.
 It illustrates the element graphically and

characteristics of a system and express its


relationship in terms of flowchart symbol

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• Sequential Processing:
These instructions do the actual data processing in
sequence order, such as input, add/subtract, copy and
output.
• Decision Making:
The decision making within the program is the process of
comparing or evaluation of two sets of data of the
program based on the results.
• Iteration:
Many routines must be repeated for some number of times
and are accomplished with the help LOOPS till the
desired result.
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 It is fake or false code which looks like
programming code.
 It uses English phrases to describe the

processing steps of a program or problem.

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Pseudo code Structure

 Pseudo code is made up of the following basic


logic structures that have been proved to be
sufficient for writing any computer program.
 Sequence
 Selection (IF...THEN...ELSE or IF....THEN)
 Iteration (DO...WHILE or REPEAT...UNTIL)

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 Writing of pseudo code involves much
less time and effort than drawing an
equivalent flowchart.
 Converting a pseudo code to a

programming language is much more


easier as compared to converting a
flowchart.
\

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 In case of pseudo code, a graphic
representation of program logic is not
available.
 There are no standard rules to follow in

using pseudocode.
 Different programmers use their own

style of writing pseudocode

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 Testing is the process of executing programs
with the intention of finding errors.

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TYPES OF TESTING
1. Unit Testing Verifies each individual program works
by itself

2.Integration testing
Combine each units and verify it

3. User acceptance Verifies application works with the


Testing users requirement/specifiication

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 Bugs are called errors.
 In computers, debugging is the process of

locating and fixing or bypassing bugs (errors)


in computer program code.

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 Syntax errors:
 Semantic errors(logical Errors):
 Run time errors

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 errors due to the fact that the syntax of the
language is not respected.
 When a programmer doesn't stick on to the
grammar' specifications of a computer language, a
syntax error results.
 These kinds of errors are easily rectified during the
compilation phase.
 Syntax errors are easy to find and correct because
the development system(program translator) finds
them for you.
◦ Example 1: Missing semicolon in c programming
◦ int a = 5
◦ In this error compiler will generate a message: semicolon is
missing
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Semantic errors: errors due to wrong program
logic/idea/concept . It is also called logical error.
 If you write a statement that is syntactically correct,

the computer will understand and execute it.


However, if you accidently told it to do something
that you did not really intend, you would have
made a logical or semantic error.
 For example, if a programmer accidently multiplies

two variables when he or she meant to divide them,


the program will give an incorrect result, but no
error message.
 Since the computer cannot generate an error

message when you make a logical error, they are


generally hardest to fix.

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 Run time errors are detected while the
program executes.
 These are often discovered when the user

enters illegal data.


 For example, if the user types in a string

when the computer expects a number, there


will be a runtime error:
 When running a payroll program, the user

entered "ten" instead of "10" for the hours


worked. When the computer tried to multiply
the pay rate by "ten", it generated the error
message shown above
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 Every types of data including numbers, text, image, etc.
are binary numbers for computer. So, these data has to
be converted into binary.
 Data representation codes are use to represent these

data in the computer


 Some of the representation codes used for numbers and

text are
i. Absolute binary
ii. BCD
iii. EBCDIC
iv. ASCII
v. UNICODE

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 We represent +ve and -ve number by sign like
-45 and +45. but in computing, it is not
possible.
 So In absolute binary, 0 is placed before binary
number to represent positive and 1 is placed
before number to represent negative
number.
 The most significant bit denotes the sign bit
and rest of bit represent the original number.
 +45 is represented as 0101101.
 -45 is represented as 1101101.
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 In computing, binary-coded decimal (BCD) is a
class of binary encodings of decimal numbers
where each decimal digit is represented by a fixed
number of bits, usually four or six bits.
 Example
 Converting 4019 to 4 bit BCD
 4=0100
 0=0000
 1=0001
 9=1001
 4019=(0100000000011001)

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 It is an 8-bit character encoding used mainly
on IBM mainframe and IBM midrange
computer operating systems.
 It is an extended version of BCD.
 Since 4 and 6-bit BCD could not represent all

characters(lower and upper case) and


symbols, so EBCDIC is used.

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DEC  HEX   EBCDIC     ASCII   BINARY

065 41 RSP A 0100 0001

066 42 â B 0100 0010

067 43 ä C 0100 0011

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 ASCII  stands for American Standard Code for
Information Interchange, is a character-
encoding scheme.
 Originally based on the English alphabet, it

encodes 128 specified characters into 7-bit


binary integer. later it is modified into 8 bit.
 It is the popular data representation code

used by almost all computer at present.


 ASCII VALUE OF CAPITAL A IS 01000001(65)

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 Unicode is an entirely new idea in setting up binary
codes for text or script characters.
 Officially called the Unicode Worldwide Character
Standard.
 It is a system for "the interchange, processing, and
display of the written texts of the diverse languages
of the modern world."
 It also supports many classical and historical texts
in a number of languages.
 Currently, the Unicode standard contains 34,168
distinct coded characters derived from 24
supported language scripts.
 These characters cover the principal written
languages of the world.
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