Chapter 2

Biology 25: Human

Biology
Prof. Gonsalves
Los Angeles City College
Loosely Based on Mader’s Human Biology,7th edition
I. Elements:
– Substances that can not be broken down into
simpler substances by chemical reactions.
– There are 92 naturally occurring elements:
elements
Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, calcium, sodium, etc.
• Life requires about 25 of the 92 elements
• Chemical Symbols:
– Abbreviations for the name of each element.
– Usually one or two letters of the English or
Latin name of the element
– First letter upper case, second letter lower case.
Example: Helium (He), sodium (Na),
potassium (K), gold (Au).
• Main Elements: Over 98% of an organism’s mass
is made up of six elements.
– Oxygen (O): 65% body mass
• Cellular respiration, component of water, and most
organic compounds.
– Carbon (C): 18% of body mass.
• Backbone of all organic compounds.
– Hydrogen (H): 10% of body mass.
• Component of water and most organic compounds.
– Nitrogen (N): 3% of body mass.
• Component of proteins and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA)
– Calcium (Ca): 1.5% of body mass.
• Bones, teeth, clotting, muscle and nerve function.
– Phosphorus (P): 1% of body mass
• Bones, nucleic acids, energy transfer (ATP).
• Minor Elements: Found in low amounts. Between
1% and 0.01%.
– Potassium (K): Main positive ion inside cells.
• Nerve and muscle function.
– Sulfur (S): Component of most proteins.
– Sodium (Na): Main positive ion outside cells.
• Fluid balance, nerve function.
– Chlorine (Cl): Main negative ion outside cells.
• Fluid balance.
– Magnesium (Mg): Component of many
enzymes and chlorophyll.
• Trace elements: Less than 0.01% of mass:
– Boron (B)
– Chromium (Cr)
– Cobalt (Co)
– Copper (Cu)
– Iron (Fe)
– Fluorine (F)
– Iodine (I)
– Manganese (Mn)
– Molybdenum (Mo)
– Selenium (Se)
– Silicon (Si)
– Tin (Sn)
– Vanadium (V)
– Zinc (Zn)
(
II. Structure & Properties of Atoms
Atoms: Smallest particle of an element that retains
its chemical properties. Made up of three main
subatomic particles.

Particle Location Mass Charge

Proton (p+) In nucleus 1 +1
Neutron (no) In nucleus 1 0
Electron (e-) Outside nucleus 0* -1

* Mass is negligible for our purposes.

Structure and Properties of Atoms
1. Atomic number = # protons
– The number of protons is unique for each element
– Each element has a fixed number of protons in its
nucleus. This number will never change for a
given element.
– Written as a subscript to left of element symbol.
Examples: 6C, 8O, 16S, 20Ca
– Because atoms are electrically neutral (no
charge), the number of electrons and protons are
always the same.
– In the periodic table elements are organized by
increasing atomic number.
Structure and Properties of Atoms:
2. Mass number = # protons + # neutrons
– Gives the mass of a specific atom.
– Written as a superscript to the left of the element
symbol.
Examples: 12C, 16O, 32S, 40Ca.
– The number of protons for an element is always
the same, but the number of neutrons may vary.
– The number of neutrons can be determined by:
# neutrons = Mass number - Atomic number
Structure and Properties of Atoms:
3. Isotopes: Variant forms of the same element.
– Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons and
therefore different masses.
– Isotopes have the same numbers of protons and
electrons.
– Example: In nature there are three forms or
isotopes of carbon (6C):
• 12C: About 99% of atoms. Have 6 p+, 6 no, and 6 e-.
• 13C: About 1% of atoms. Have 6 p+, 7 no, and 6 e-.
• 14C: Found in tiny quantities. Have 6 p+, 8 no, and 6 e-.
Radioactive form (unstable). Used for dating
fossils.
 Electron Arrangements of Important
Elements of Life

1 Valence electron 4 Valence electrons 5 Valence electrons 6 Valence electrons

III. How Atoms Form Molecules:
Chemical Bonds
Molecule: Two or more atoms combined chemically.
Compound: A substance with two or more elements
combined in a fixed ratio.
• Water (H2O)
• Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)
• Carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
• Table salt (NaCl)
– Atoms are linked by chemical bonds.
Chemical Formula: Describes the chemical
composition of a molecule of a compound.
– Symbols indicate the type of atoms
– Subscripts indicate the number of atoms
How Atoms Form Molecules: Chemical Bonds
“Octet Rule”: When the outer shell of an atom is not full, i.e.:
contains fewer than 8 (or 2) electrons (valence e-), the atom
tends to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve a complete
outer shell (8, 2, or 0) electrons.
Example:
Sodium has 11 electrons, 1 valence electron.
Sodium loses its electron, becoming an ion:
Na -------> Na+ + 1 e-
1(2), 2(8), 3(1) 1(2), 2(8)
Outer shell has 1 e- Outer shell is full
Sodium atom Sodium ion
Number of valence electrons determine the chemical
behavior of atoms.
Element Valence Combining Tendency
Electrons Capacity
Sodium 1 1 Lose 1
Calcium 2 2 Lose 2
Aluminum 3 3 Lose 3
Carbon 4 4 Share 4
Nitrogen 5 3 Gain 3
Oxygen 6 2 Gain 2
Chlorine 7 1 Gain 1
Neon* 8 0 Stable
* Noble gas
How Atoms Form Molecules: Chemical
Bonds
Atoms can lose, gain, or share electrons to satisfy octet
rule (fill outermost shell).
Two main types of Chemical Bonds

A. Ionic bond: Atoms gain or lose electrons

B. Covalent bond: Atoms share electrons

A. Ionic Bond: Atoms gain or lose electrons.
Bonds are attractions between ions of opposite
charge.
Ionic compound: One consisting of ionic bonds.

Na + Cl ----------> Na+ Cl-

sodium chlorine Table salt
(Sodium chloride)
Two Types of Ions:
Anions: Negatively charged particle (Cl-)
Cations: Positively charged particle (Na+)
B. Covalent Bond: Involves the “sharing” of one
or more pairs of electrons between atoms.
Covalent compound: One consisting of
covalent bonds.
Example: Methane (CH4): Main component
of natural gas.
H
|
H---C---H
|
H
Each line represents on shared pair of electrons.
Octet rule is satisfied: Carbon has 8 electrons,
Hydrogen has 2 electrons
There may be more than one covalent bond between
atoms:
1. Single bond: One electron pair is shared between
two atoms.
Example: Chlorine (Cl2), water (H2O); methane
(CH4)
Cl --- Cl

2. Double bond: Two electron pairs share between

atoms.
Example: Oxygen gas (O2); carbon dioxide (CO2)
O=O
3. Triple bond: Three electron pairs shared between
two atoms.
Example: Nitrogen gas (N2)
N=N
Number of covalent bonds
formed by important elements:
Carbon (4)
Nitrogen (3)
Oxygen (2)
Sulfur (2)
Hydrogen (1)
Two Types of Covalent Bonds: Polar and Nonpolar

Electronegativity: A measure of an
atom’s ability to attract and hold onto
a shared pair of electrons.
Some atoms such as oxygen or nitrogen
have a much higher electronegativity
than others, such as carbon and
hydrogen.
Element Electronegativity
O 3.5
N 3.0
S&C 2.5
P&H 2.1
Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

A. Nonpolar Covalent Bond: When the

atoms in a bond have equal or similar
attraction for the electrons
(electronegativity), they are shared
equally.
Example: O2, H2, Cl2
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: Electrons are
Shared Equally
Polar and Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

B. Polar Covalent Bond: When the

atoms in a bond have different
electronegativities, the electrons are
shared unequally.
Electrons are closer to the more
electronegative atom creating a polarity
or partial charge.
Example: H2O
Oxygen has a partial negative charge.
Hydrogens have partial positive charges.
Other Bonds: Weak chemical bonds are important in the
chemistry of living things.
• Hydrogen bonds: Attraction between the partially
positive H of one molecule and a partially negative atom
of another
– Hydrogen bonds are about 20 X easier to break than
a normal covalent bond.
– Responsible for many properties of water.
– Determine 3 dimensional shape of DNA and proteins.
– Chemical signaling (molecule to receptor).
Water: The Ideal Compound for Life

– Living cells are 70-90% water

– Water covers 3/4 of earth’s surface

– Water is the ideal solvent for chemical

reactions

– On earth, water exists as gas, liquid,

and solid
I. Polarity of water causes hydrogen bonding

– Water molecules are held together by H-bonding

– Partially positive H attracted to partially
negative O atom.
• Individual H bond are weak, but the cumulative effect
of many H bonds is very strong.
• H bonds only last a fraction of a second, but at any
moment most molecules are hydrogen bonded to
others.
Unique properties of water caused by H-bonds
– Cohesion: Water molecules stick to each other.
This causes surface tension.
• Film-like surface of water is difficult to break.
• Used by some insects that live on water surface.
• Water forms beads.

– Adhesion: Water sticks to many surfaces.

Capillary Action: Water tends to rise in narrow
tubes. This is caused by cohesion and adhesion
(water molecules stick to walls of tubes).
Examples: Upward movement of water through plant
vessels and fluid in blood vessels.
Unique properties of water caused by H-bonds
– Expands when it freezes.
• Ice forms stable H bonds, each molecule is bonded to
four neighbors (crystalline lattice). Water does not
form stable H bonds.
• Ice is less dense than water.
• Ice floats on water.

• Life can survive in bodies of water, even though the

earth has gone through many winters and ice ages
Unique properties of water caused by H-bonds
– Stable Temperature: Water resists changes in
temperature because it has a high specific heat.
• Specific Heat:
Heat Amount of heat energy needed to raise 1
g of substance 1 degree Celsius
– Specific Heat of Water: 1 calorie/gram/oC

• High heat of vaporization: Water must absorb large

amounts of energy (heat) to evaporate.
– Heat of Vaporization of Water: 540 calorie/gram.

• Evaporative cooling is used by many organisms to

regulate body temperature.
– Sweating
– Panting
Unique properties of water caused by H-bonds
– Universal Solvent: Dissolves many (but not all)
substances to form solutions.
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or
more substances (salt water, air, tap water).
All solutions have at least two components:
• Solvent: Dissolving substance (water, alcohol, oil).
– Aqueous solution: If solvent is water.
• Solute: Substance that is dissolved (salt, sugar, CO2).
– Water dissolves polar and ionic solutes well.
– Water does not dissolve nonpolar solvents well.
Solubility of a Solute Depends on its
Chemical Nature
Solubility: Ability of substance to dissolve in a
given solvent.
Two Types of Solutes:
A. Hydrophilic: “Water loving” dissolve easily
in water.
• Ionic compounds (e.g. salts)
• Polar compounds (molecules with polar regions)
• Examples: Compounds with -OH groups
(alcohols).
• “Like dissolves in like”
Solubility of a Solute Depends on its
Chemical Nature
Two Types of Solutes:
B. Hydrophobic: “Water fearing” do not
dissolve in water
• Non-polar compounds (lack polar regions)
• Examples: Hydrocarbons with only C-H non-polar
bonds, oils, gasoline, waxes, fats, etc.
ACIDS, BASES, pH AND
BUFFERS
A. Acid: A substance that donates protons (H+).
– Separate into one or more protons and an
anion:
HCl (into H2O ) -------> H+ + Cl-

H2SO4 (into H2O ) --------> H+ + HSO4-

– Acids INCREASE the relative [H+] of a
solution.
– Water can also dissociate into ions, at low
levels:
H2O <======> H+ + OH-
B. Base: A substance that accepts protons (H+).
– Many bases separate into one or more positive ions (cations)
and a hydroxyl group (OH- ).
– Bases DECREASE the relative [H+] of a solution ( and
increases the relative [OH-] ).
H2 O <======> H+ + OH-

Directly NH3 + H+ <=------> NH4+

Indirectly NaOH ---------> Na+ + OH-

( H+ + OH- <=====> H2O )
Strong acids and bases: Dissociation is almost complete
(99% or more of molecules).
HCl (aq) -------------> H+ + Cl-
NaOH (aq) -----------> Na+ + OH-
(L.T. 1% in this form) (G.T. 99% in dissociated form)
• A relatively small amount of a strong acid or base will
drastically affect the pH of solution.
Weak acids and bases: A small percentage of molecules
dissociate at a give time (1% or less)
H2CO3 <=====> H+ + HCO3-
carbonic acid Bicarbonate ion
(G.T. 99% in this form) (L.T. 1% in dissociated form)
C. pH scale: [H+] and [OH-]
– pH scale is used to measure how basic or acidic a solution is.
– Range of pH scale: 0 through 14.
• Neutral solution: pH is 7. [H+ ] = [OH-]
• Acidic solution: pH is less than 7. [H+ ] > [OH-]

• Basic solution: pH is greater than 7. [H+ ] < [OH-]

– As [H+] increases pH decreases (inversely proportional).

– Logarithmic scale: Each unit on the pH scale represents a

ten-fold change in [H+].
D. Buffers keep pH of solutions relatively constant

– Buffer: Substance which prevents sudden large

changes in pH when acids or bases are added.
– Buffers are biologically important because most of
the chemical reactions required for life can only take
place within narrow pH ranges.
– Example:
• Normal blood pH 7.35-7.45. Serious health problems
will arise if blood pH is not stable.
 CHEMICAL REACTIONS

– A chemical change in which substances (reactants) are

joined, broken down, or rearranged to form new
substances (products).
– Involve the making and/or breaking of chemical bonds.
– Chemical equations are used to represent chemical
reactions.
Example:
2 H2 + O2 -----------> 2H2O
2 Hydrogen Oxygen 2 Water
Molecules Molecule Molecules
Organic Chemistry: Carbon Based Compounds
A. Inorganic Compounds: Compounds without carbon.
B. Organic Compounds: Compounds synthesized by cells and containing
carbon (except for CO and CO2).
– Diverse group: Several million organic compounds are known and
more are identified every day.
– Common: After water, organic compounds are the most common
substances in cells.
• Over 98% of the dry weight of living cells is made up of organic
compounds.
• Less than 2% of the dry weight of living cells is made up of inorganic
compounds.
Carbon: unique element for basic building block of
molecules of life

• Carbon has 4 valence electrons: Can form four

covalent bonds
– Can form single , double, triple bonds.

– Can form large, complex, branching

molecules and rings.

– Carbon atoms easily bond to C, N, O, H, P, S.

• Huge variety of molecules can be formed based

on simple bonding rules of basic chemistry
 Diversity of Organic Compounds
• Hydrocarbons:
– Organic molecules that contain C and H only.
– Good fuels, but not biologically important.
– Undergo combustion (burn in presence of oxygen).
– In general they are chemically stable.
– Nonpolar: Do not dissolve in water (Hydrophobic).
Examples:
• (1C) Methane: CH4 (Natural gas).
• (2C) Ethane: CH3CH3
• (3C) Propane: CH3CH2CH3 (Gas grills).
• (4C) Butane: CH3CH2CH2CH3 (Lighters).
• (5C) Pentane: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH3
• (6C) Hexane: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
• (7C) Heptane: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
• (8C) Octane: CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3
Functional groups play pivotal role in chemical &
physical properties of organic molecules

Compounds that are made up solely of carbon

and hydrogen are not very reactive.
Functional groups:
– One or more H atoms of the carbon skeleton
may be replaced by a functional group.
– Groups of atoms that have unique chemical
and physical properties.

• Usually a part of molecule that is chemically active.

• Similar activity from one molecule to another.
• Together with size and shape, determine unique
bonding and chemical activity of organic molecules.
Functional Groups Determine Chemical &
Physical Properties of Organic Molecules

Four Important Functional Groups:

• Hydroxyl (-OH)
• Carbonyl (=C=O)
• Carboxyl (-COOH)
• Amino (-NH2)
– Notice that all four functional groups
are polar.
I. Most Biological Macromolecules are Polymers
– Polymer: Large molecule consisting of many
identical or similar “subunits” linked through
covalent bonds.
– Monomer: “Subunit” or building block of a
polymer.
– Macromolecule: Large organic polymer. Most
macromolecules are constructed from about 70
simple monomers.
• Only about 70 monomers are used by all living things on
earth to construct a huge variety of molecules
• Structural variation of macromolecules is the basis for
the enormous diversity of life on earth.
Making and Breaking Polymers
– There are two main chemical
mechanisms in the production and
break down of macromolecules.
• Condensation or Dehydration Synthesis
• Hydrolysis
– In the cell these mechanisms are
regulated by enzymes.
Relatively few monomers are used by cells to make a
huge variety of macromolecules
Macromolecule Monomers or Subunits
1. Carbohydrates 20-30 monosaccharides
or simple sugars
2. Proteins 20 amino acids

3. Nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) 4 nucleotides (A,G,C,T/U)

4. Lipids (fats and oils) ~ 20 different fatty acids

and glycerol.
III. Carbohydrates: Molecules that store energy and are used
as building materials
– General Formula: (CH2O)n
– Simple sugars and their polymers.
– Diverse group includes sugars, starches, cellulose.
– Biological Functions:
– Fuels, energy storage
– Structural component (cell walls)
– DNA/RNA component
– Three types of carbohydrates:
A. Monosaccharides
B. Disaccharides
C. Polysaccharides
A. Monosaccharides: “Mono” single & “sacchar” sugar
– Preferred source of chemical energy for cells (glucose)
– Can be synthesized by plants from light, H2O and CO2.
– Store energy in chemical bonds.
– Carbon skeletons used to synthesize other molecules.
Characteristics:
1. May have 3-8 carbons. -OH on each carbon; one with C=0
2. Names end in -ose. Based on number of carbons:
• 5 carbon sugar: pentose
• 6 carbon sugar: hexose.
3. Can exist in linear or ring forms
4. Isomers: Many molecules with the same molecular
formula, but different atomic arrangement.
• Example: Glucose and fructose are both C6H12O6.
Fructose is sweeter than glucose.
B. Disaccharides: “Di” double & “sacchar” sugar
 Covalent bond formed by condensation reaction
between 2 monosaccharides.
Examples:
1. Maltose: Glucose + Glucose.
• Energy storage in seeds.
• Used to make beer.
2. Lactose: Glucose + Galactose.
• Found in milk.
• Lactose intolerance is common among adults.
• May cause gas, cramping, bloating, diarrhea, etc.
3. Sucrose: Glucose + Fructose.
• Most common disaccharide (table sugar).
• Found in plant sap.
C. Polysaccharides: “Poly” many (8 to 1000)
Functions: Storage of chemical energy and structure.
– Storage polysaccharides: Cells can store simple sugars
in polysacharides and hydrolyze them when needed.

1. Starch: Glucose polymer (Helical)

• Form of glucose storage in plants (amylose)
• Stored in plant cell organelles called plastids

2. Glycogen: Glucose polymer (Branched)

• Form of glucose storage in animals (muscle and
liver cells)
– Structural Polysaccharides: Used as
structural components of cells and tissues.

1. Cellulose: Glucose polymer.

• The major component of plant cell walls.
• CANNOT be digested by animal enzymes.
• Only microbes have enzymes to hydrolyze.

2. Chitin: Polymer of an amino sugar (with NH2

group)
• Forms exoskeleton of arthropods (insects)
• Found in cell walls of some fungi
Lipids: Fats, phospholipids, and steroids

Diverse groups of compounds.

Composition of Lipids:
– C, H, and small amounts of O.

Functions of Lipids:
– Biological fuels
– Energy storage
– Insulation
– Structural components of cell membranes
– Hormones
Lipids: Fats, phospholipids, and steroids

1. Simple Lipids: Contain C, H, and O only.

A. Fats (Triglycerides).
• Glycerol : Three carbon molecule with three hydroxyls.
• Fatty Acids: Carboxyl group and long hydrocarbon chains.
– Characteristics of fats:
• Most abundant lipids in living organisms.
• Hydrophobic (insoluble in water) because nonpolar.
• Economical form of energy storage (provide 2X the
energy/weight than carbohydrates).
• Greasy or oily appearance.
Lipids: Fats, phospholipids, and steroids

Types of Fats
– Saturated fats: Hydrocarbons saturated with H.
Lack -C=C- double bonds.
• Solid at room temp (butter, animal fat, lard)

– Unsaturated fats: Contain -C=C- double bonds.

• Usually liquid at room temp (corn, peanut, olive oils)
2. Complex Lipids: In addition to C, H, and O, also contain other
elements, such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and sulfur.
A. Phospholipids: Are composed of:
• Glycerol
• 2 fatty acid
• Phosphate group

– Amphipathic Molecule
• Hydrophobic fatty acid “tails”.
• Hydrophilic phosphate “head”.
Function: Primary component of the plasma membrane of cells
B. Steroids: Lipids with four fused carbon rings
Includes cholesterol, bile salts, reproductive, and adrenal
hormones.
• Cholesterol: The basic steroid found in animals
– Common component of animal cell membranes.
– Precursor to make sex hormones (estrogen, testosterone)
– Generally only soluble in other fats (not in water)
– Too much increases chance of atherosclerosis.

C. Waxes: One fatty acid linked to an alcohol.

• Very hydrophobic.
• Found in cell walls of certain bacteria, plant and insect coats.
Help prevent water loss.
Proteins: Large three-dimensional
macromolecules responsible for most cellular
functions

– Polypeptide chains: Polymers of amino acids

linked by peptide bonds in a SPECIFIC linear
sequence

– Protein: Macromolecule composed of one or

more polypeptide chains folded into SPECIFIC
3-D conformations
Proteins have important and varied functions:
1. Enzymes: Catalysis of cellular reactions
2. Structural Proteins: Maintain cell shape
3. Transport: Transport in cells/bodies (e.g. hemoglobin).
Channels and carriers across cell membrane.
4. Communication: Chemical messengers, hormones, and
receptors.
5. Defensive: Antibodies and other molecules that bind to
foreign molecules and help destroy them.
6. Contractile: Muscular movement.
7. Storage: Store amino acids for later use (e.g. egg white).

Protein function is dependent upon its 3-D shape.

Polypeptide: Polymer of amino acids connected in
a specific sequence

A. Amino acid: The monomer of

polypeptides
• Central carbon
– H atom
– Carboxyl group
– Amino group
– Variable R-group
Protein Function is dependent upon Protein Structure (Conformation)

CONFORMATION: The 3-D shape of a protein is determined by its

amino acid sequence.

Four Levels of Protein Structure

1. Primary structure: Linear amino acid sequence,
determined by gene for that protein.
2. Secondary structure: Regular coiling/folding of
polypeptide.
• Alpha helix or beta sheet.
• Caused by H-bonds between amino acids.
3. Tertiary structure: Overall 3-D shape of a
polypeptide chain.

4. Quaternary structure: Only in proteins with 2 or

more polypeptides. Overall 3-D shape of all chains.
• Example: Hemoglobin (2 alpha and 2 beta
polypeptides)
Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information for all living things
There are two types of nucleic acids in living things:
A. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
• Contains genetic information of all living organisms.
• Has segments called genes which provide information to make each
and every protein in a cell
• Double-stranded molecule which replicates each time a cell divides.

B. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

• Three main types called mRNA, tRNA, rRNA
• RNA molecules are copied from DNA and used to make gene products
(proteins).
• Usually exists in single-stranded form.
DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides that determine the primary
structure of proteins

• Nucleotide: Subunits of DNA or RNA.

Nucleotides have three components:

1. Pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)

2. Phosphate group to link nucleotides (-PO 4)
3. Nitrogenous base (A,G,C,T or U)
• Purines: Have 2 rings.
Adenine (A) and guanine (G)
• Pyrimidines: Have one ring.
Cytosine (C), thymine (T) in DNA or uracil (U) in RNA.
James Watson and Francis Crick Determined the 3-D Shape of DNA in 1953

– Double helix: The DNA molecule is a double helix.

– Antiparallel: The two DNA strands run in opposite directions.
• Strand 1: 5’ to 3’ direction (------------>)
• Strand 2: 3’ to 5’ direction (<------------)
– Complementary Base Pairing: A & T (U) and G & C.
• A on one strand hydrogen bonds to T (or U in RNA).
• G on one strand hydrogen bonds to C.

– Replication: The double-stranded DNA molecule can easily replicate

based on A=T and G=C pairing.
– SEQUENCE of nucleotides in a DNA molecule dictate the amino acid
SEQUENCE of polypeptides