Lecture - 6

Gaining access to data,

research ethics and sampling

3-major parts
a. Gaining access to data
b. Research ethics
c. Sampling
 » Part - 1

Gaining access to data

a. Physical entry (or initial access): The initial level of gaining
access to an organization to conduct research or gaining entry
to an organization and access to intended participants

b. Continuing access: Continuing access is necessary to

carry out further parts of your research or to be able to repeat
the collection of data in another part of the organization;

c. Cognitive access: The process of gaining access to data

from intended participants. This involves participants agreeing
to be interviewed or observed, within agreed limits. This is
achieved through ‘informed consent’.

 Types of access
Informed consent: Position achieved when intended
participants are fully informed about the nature,
purpose and use of research to be undertaken and
their role within it, and where their consent to
participate, if provided, is freely given.

Implied consent: Position achieved when intended

participants are fully informed about the nature,
purpose and use of research to be undertaken and
their role within it, but their consent to participate, is
inferred from their participating in the research, such
as by responding to a questionnaire.

 Participant consent
 

1. Organisations may not be prepared to allocate time and

resources
2. Requests for access may not be of sufficient interest to
organizations
3. Failure to reach those who can give permission
(contacting wrong person)
4. Concerns about sensitivity of the topic or the
confidentiality of the information sought
5. Perceptions about the researcher’s credibility
6. Doubts about the researcher’s competence

Problems associated with access

» Allow yourself sufficient time


» Using existing contacts and developing new ones



» Providing a clear account of purpose and type of access required

»
» Overcoming organisational concerns about granting access
»
» Identifying possible benefits to the organization of granting access
»
» Appropriate forms of communication:

Ø Writing introductory letter (Specimen on page 142 of the text)

Ø Facilitating ease of reply when requesting access (page 144 of the
text)

˃
Strategies to gain access
» Developing access on Incremental basis
»
» Establishing researcher credibility
 

 There is a lengthy, time consuming and exhaustive

process of gaining access to data


 Students are encouraged to go through

 Box 5.2 (page 146) for
 ‘Checklist to help to gain access’
 And
 Box 5.4 (page 152) for
 ‘Checklist of requirements for informed consent’

Checklists to help gain access

 Part - 2

‘The appropriateness of your behaviour

in relation to the rights of those
who become the subject of
or are affected by your work’

Adapted from Saunders et al. (2009)

Research ethics
 Part - 2

‘Gaining access to data’ and ‘maintaining ethics’ are

interrelated processes, because:

The ‘requirements for informed consent’ necessitate

informing participants about:

* ‘the nature of the research’

* ‘the requirements of taking part in research’
* ‘the implications of taking part and participants’
rights’
* ‘the use of data collected and the way in which it
will be reported’
 Part - 2

The discussion on ethical issues carries a wide scope;

there are ethical issues that affect the research process
in general, while there are ethical issues that are specific
to each stage of research.
‘Privacy’ may be seen as the cornerstone of the ethical
issues and ‘Respecting privacy of participants’ means:
* the right of participant not to participate
* the right not to be harassed or offered inducements
* the right not to be contacted at unreasonable times
* the right not to answer any question or set of questions
or provide any data, at all.
* ..................
* ..................
(Check Box 5.3, page 149 for other details)
Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different research stages
Figure 6.1 Ethical issues at different research stages
  The nature of participant consent


 Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Research Ethics
 Part - 3

Selecting
the Samples
 

 Source: Saunders et al. (2009)

Population, sample and individual cases

Figure 7.1 Population, sample and individual cases
 Sampling--a valid alternative to a census when;
»
» A survey of the entire population is impractical


» Budget constraints restrict data collection



» Time constraints restrict data collection



» Results are needed quickly

The need to sample

 Population
The entire group under study as defined by
research’s objectives, sometimes called the
“universe.” e.g.:
heads of households, families, types of retail outlets

Sample frame
a master list of the population (total or partial) from which
the sample will be drawn

Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling -1

 Sample
a subset of the population that should represent
the entire group

Sample unit
the basic level of investigation…consumers, store managers,
shelf-facings, teens, etc. The research objective should
define the sample unit

Census
an accounting of the complete population

Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling -2

 Sampling error
any error that occurs in a survey because a sample is used
(random error)

Sample frame error (SFE)

the degree to which the sample frame fails to account for all of
the defined units in the population (e.g. a telephone book
listing does not contain unlisted numbers) leading to sampling
frame error.

Basic Concepts in Samples and Sampling - 3

Sampling error and sampling frame 20

error
 Discussion on last week
WE ARE GOING TO POSTPONE OUR - 5
assignment
BRAINSTORMING DISCUSSION ON
“Points learnt from study of cases on gaining
access and ethical issues”

YOU WILL IMPROVE YOUR

PRESENTATION ON ABOVE TOPIC WITH
THE HELP FROM MATERIALS FROM THIS
LECTURE (EARLIER SLIDES), AND WILL
MAKE A PRESENTATION ON A BROADER
TOPIC INDICATED ON NEXT SLIDE
 Assignment – 6
Cases on gaining access, ethical issues and
sampling techniques

Individual student’s assignment

1. Continue work on collection of further review materials and
writing of ‘Review of Literature’ section of your project report.

2. Refine your work on “Points learnt from study of cases on

gaining access and ethical issues”; this lecture will help you to do
so.

3. Study the cases 7a to 7c, think about the answers of questions

given at the end of each case, and compare your thought-over
answers with actual answers provided.
Sampling technique:
Case 7a ) Provided in “Additional Reading
Case 7b ) Materials” on pages 55-onwards
Case 7c )
Continues on next slide
 » A ssig n m e n t – 6
C a se s o n gaining access, ethical issues and
sa mexplain
Briefly p linwhat
g teyouch n iq
have u efrom
learnt s study of these cases;
please also be ready for a class discussion on the topic in the next
class.
4. You will do this all individually, and your individual reports will be
annexed with your group report to be submitted in next week-class.
You report will include ‘Points learnt from study of the cases on
sampling techniques’.

Group’s assignment:
1. Exchange your individual reports with each other, hold a group
meeting and finalize group report for submission in next class.
2. Be ready for a presentation and class discussion on the topic in
next class.
 We have already learned how the data were entered in to
 the SPSS file “CGPA-SURVEY” and used to estimate
 DESCRIPTIVES and FREQUENCIES


 Today we are going to learn how some new variables can

be computed from the existing ones.


» Our two variables MARKFA and MARKMA (marks in

FA/F.Sc and Matric) are in percentages while CGPAL
and CGPAB (CGPA in latest degree and at Bachelor
level) are in CGPAs. To have all four variables in the
same/comparable level, we wish to convert MARKFA
and MARKMA in to CGPA (from their original
percentage levels).
» For such conversions (to create new variables on the
basis of existing ones), we first use TRANSFORM and
then COMPUTE commands.
» In “TARGET VARIABLE’ box, write
SPSSthe new variable’s
Exercise 6(a):
name “CGPAFA” and in “NUMERIC EXPRESSION” box,
Use
write the of TRANSFORM
formula andthe
needed to convert COMPUTE
existing
variable in to new one. commands
» Since the highest marks in column under
“MARKFA” are 90, we may assume 90%
marks = 4.00 CGPA; hence the formula in
“NUMERIC EXPRESSION” box should be:
(4/90)*MARKFA
»
» You can write your own formula, or can take
the required formula from “FUNCTION
GROUP” box ; for instance, click
‘”ARITHMETIC” , then “Ln” (natural log),
and bring “Ln” up in “NUMERIC
EXPRESSION” box, and bring variable of
interest in to the parenthesis from the list
of variables on the left.
SPSS Exercise 6(b):
Use of TRANSFORM and COMPUTE
commands