A journey trough time and space..

Formation of our Solar System

The Solar System
The Sun
 Facts about the Sun
Physical characteristics
• Mean diameter 1.392×10 6 km
• Flattening 9×10−6
• Surface area 6.0877×1012 km2 11,990 × Earth
• Volume 1.412×1018 km3 1,300,000 × Earth
• Mass 1.9891×10 30 kg 333,000 × Earth
• Average density 1.408×10 3 kg/m3
• Density Center (model): 1.622×10 5 kg/m3
Lower photosphere: 2×10−4 kg/m3
Lower chromosphere: 5×10 −6 kg/m3
Corona (avg.): 1×10−12 kg/m3
• Equatorial surface gravity 274.0 m/s2 27.94 g
28 × Earth Escape velocity
(from the surface) 617.7 km/s
55 × Earth Temperature Center (modeled): ~1.57×10 7 K
Photosphere (effective): 5,778 K
Corona: ~5×106 K
• Luminosity (Lsol) 3.846×1026 W ~3.75×1028 lm ~98 lm/W
efficacy
• Mean Intensity (Isol) 2.009×107 W·m−2·sr−1
The Earth
 Facts about Terra
Physical characteristics Orbital Characteristics
• Circumference at Equator 40.074 km • Aphelion 152,098,232 km

• Circumference at Poles 40.007 km • Perihelion 147,098,290 km

• Diameter at Equator 12.756 km • Semi-major axis 149,598,261 km

• Eccentricity 0.01671123
• Diameter at Poles 12.714 km

• Orbital period 365.256363004 days

• Total Surface Area 510 million km^2

• Average orbital speed 29.78 km/s 107,200 km/h

• Land Surface Area 149 million km^2

• Inclination 7.155° to Sun's equator

• Percentage Surface Area that is Land 29%

• Satellites : Luna 
• Percentage Surface Area that is Water 71%
Factors that affect Earth’s shape
Models used for representing Earth
 Ellipsoidal Earth model
Ellipsoidal Earth models are required for
The flattening is the difference in length between
accurate range and bearing calculations over
the two axes expressed as a fraction or a decimal.
long distances.

The flattening, f, is:

Loran-C, and GPS navigation receivers use
f = (a-b)/a
ellipsoidal earth models to compute position
and way point information.
Another quantity, that, like the flattening,
describes the shape of a spheroid, is the square of
Ellipsoidal models define an ellipsoid with an the eccentricity, e2.
equatorial radius and a polar radius.
It is represented by:
The best of these models can represent the
shape of the earth over the smoothed, e2 = (a2 – b2)/a2
averaged sea-surface to with in about one
hundred meters. The ellipsoidal model offers the best
mathematical approximation of Earth.
An ellipsoid is defined by either the semimajor-
axis, a, and the semiminor-axis, b, or by a and It is a simple geometrical surface
the flattening.
 Geoid
Geoid, from the Greek "Earth-shaped", is the common definition of our world's
shape.
The equipotential surface of the Earth's gravity field which best fits, in a least
square sense, global mean sea level.

Limitations:
It has no complete mathematical expression.
Small variations in surface shape over time introduces mall errors in
measurement.
The irregularity of the surface would necessitate a prohibitive amount of
computations.
Basic computational formula:
Gravitational field of Earth
 Geopotential
Geopotential is the potential of the Earth's gravity field. For convenience it is often defined
as minus the potential energy per unit mass, so that the gravity vector is obtained as the
gradient of this potential, without the minus.

For geophysical applications, gravity is distinguished from gravitation. Gravity is defined as

the resultant of gravitation and the centrifugal force caused by the Earth's rotation.

The global mean sea surface is close to one of the equipotential surfaces of the
geopotential of gravity.

This equipotential surface, or surface of constant geopotential, is called the geoid.

For the purpose of satellite orbital mechanics, the geopotential is typically described by a
series expansion into spherical harmonics (spectral representation). In this context the
geopotential is taken as the potential of the gravitational field of the Earth, that is, leaving
out the centrifugal potential.
Geopotential Surfaces
 Geopotential Surfaces
Geopotential surface (equipotential surface)
A surface of constant geopotential is a
surface along which a parcel of air could
move without undergoing any changes in its
potential energy.
 
Geopotential surfaces almost coincide with
surfaces of constant geometric height.
Because of the poleward increase of the
acceleration of gravity along a surface of
constant geometric height, a given
geopotential surface has a smaller geometric
height over the poles than over the equator.
Geopotential - The potential energy of a
unit mass relative to sea level, numerically
equal to the work that would be done in
lifting the unit mass from sea level to the
height at which the mass is located;
commonly expressed in terms of dynamic
height or geopotential height.
 
The geopotential Φ at height z is given
mathematically by the expression:
where g is the acceleration of gravity.

Dynamic height – (geodynamic height)
The height of a point in the atmosphere expressed
in a unit proportional to the geopotential at that
point.
One of the practical advantages of the dynamic
height over the geometric height is that when the
former is introduced into the hydrostatic equation
the height acceleration of gravity is eliminated.
In meteorological height calculations geopotential
height is more often used than dynamic height.
In oceanography, dynamic computations are also
based upon units of dynamic height (or dynamic
depth).
The dynamic height is computed from the
measured density distribution.
Potential energy — The energy a system has by
virtue of its position; the negative of the work
done in taking a system from a reference
configuration, where the potential energy is
assigned the value zero, to a given configuration,
with no change in kinetic energy of the system.
 
An example of potential energy is the
gravitational potential energy of a point mass m
at a distance r from the center of a spherically
symmetric body with mass M (e.g., a planet):
where G is the universal gravitational constant
and the reference potential energy is taken as
zero at infinity.
Geopotential height - The height of a given point in the atmosphere in units
proportional to the potential energy of unit mass at this height relative to sea
level.
 
The relation, in SI units, between the geopotential height Z and the geometric
height z is

where g is the acceleration of gravity, so that the two heights are numerically
interchangeable for most meteorological purposes. Also, one geopotential
meter is equal to 0.98 dynamic meter.
 Atmosphere composition

Initial atmospheric makeup is generally related to the chemistry and

temperature of the local solar nebula during planetary formation and
the subsequent escape of interior gases. These original atmospheres
underwent much evolution over time, with the varying properties of
each planet resulting in very different outcomes.

The atmospheric composition on Earth is largely governed by the by-

products of the very life that it sustains. Earth's atmosphere contains
roughly (by molar content/volume) 78.09% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, a
variable amount (average around 0.247%, National Center for
Atmospheric Research) water vapor, 0.93% argon, 0.038% carbon
dioxide, and traces of hydrogen, helium, and other "noble" gases.
Exosphere - The outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere extends
from the exobase upward.
It is mainly composed of hydrogen and helium. The particles are
so far apart that they can travel hundreds of kilometres without
colliding with one another.

Thermosphere - Temperature increases with height in the

thermosphere from the mesopause up to the thermopause,
then is constant with height. The temperature of this layer can
rise to 1,500 °C (2,730 °F), though the gas molecules are so far
apart that temperature in the usual sense is not well defined.
The International Space Station orbits in this layer, between 320
and 380 km (200 and 240 mi).

The top of the thermosphere is the bottom of the exosphere,

called the exobase. Its height varies with solar activity and
ranges from about 350–800 km (220–500 mi; 1,100,000–
2,600,000 ft).
Mesosphere - The mesosphere extends from the stratopause to 80–85 km (50–
53 mi; 260,000–280,000 ft). It is the layer where most meteors burn up upon
entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height in the mesosphere.
The temperature minimum that marks the top of the mesosphere, is the coldest
place on Earth and has an average temperature around −85 °C (−121 °F; 188.1 K).
Due to the cold temperature of the mesophere, water vapor is frozen, forming ice
clouds. A type of lightning referred to as either sprites or ELVES, form many miles
above thunderclouds in the troposphere.

Stratosphere - The stratosphere extends from the tropopause to about 51 km (32
mi; 170,000 ft). Temperature increases with height, which restricts turbulence and
mixing.
The stratopause, which is the boundary between the stratosphere and
mesosphere, typically is at 50 to 55 km (31 to 34 mi; 160,000 to 180,000 ft). The
pressure here is 1/1000 sea level.

Troposphere - The troposphere begins at the surface and extends to between

7 km (23,000 ft) at the poles and 17 km (56,000 ft) at the equator, with some
variation due to weather. The troposphere is mostly heated by transfer of energy
from the surface, so on average the lowest part of the troposphere is warmest
and temperature decreases with altitude. This promotes vertical mixing (hence
the origin of its name in the Greek word "τροπή", trope, meaning turn or
overturn). The troposphere contains roughly 80% of the mass of the atmosphere.
The tropopause is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere.
Interesting phenomena
The masterminds
Vinturici Sergiu
Muntean George Dan
Niculae George Daniel
Perederic Ionut-Cristian

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