Nonlinear Elasticity

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Outline

• Some basics of nonlinear elasticity

• Nonlinear elasticity of biopolymer networks
• Nematic elastomers

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

What is Elasticity

• Description of distortions of rigid bodies

and the energy, forces, and fluctuations
arising from these distortions.
• Describes mechanics of extended bodies
from the macroscopic to the microscopic,
from bridges to the cytoskeleton.

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Classical Lagrangian Description

x R( x )
x
R( x)
R( x) = x + u( x)
Reference material in D Material distorted to new
dimensions described by positions R(x)
a continuum of mass
points x. Neighbors of
¶ Ri
L ia = = di a + hi a
points do not change ¶ xa
under distortion Cauchy deformation tensor
hi a = ¶ a u i
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Linear and Nonlinear Elasticity
Linear: Small deformations –  near 1
Nonlinear: Large deformations –  >>1
Why nonlinear?
• Systems can undergo large deformations – rubbers,
polymer networks , …
• Non-linear theory needed to understand properties of
statically strained materials
• Non-linearities can renormalize nature of elasticity
• Elegant an complex theory of interest in its own right
Why now:
• New interest in biological materials under large strain
• Liquid crystal elastomers – exotic nonlinear behavior
• Old subject but difficult to penetrate – worth a fresh look
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Deformations and Strain
Complete information about shape of body in R(x)= x +u(x);
u= const. – translation no energy.
No energy cost unless u(x) varies in space.
For slow variations, use the Cauchy deformation tensor
L i a = di a + ¶ a u i = di a + hi a
d 3R = det L d 3x
%
det L = 1 : No volume change
%
æL - 1/ 2 0 ö
0÷
çç ÷
çç ÷
L= ç 0 L - 1/ 2
0÷
÷
÷

% çç ÷
÷
çç 0
è 0 L÷
÷
ø
 
Volume preserving stretch along z-axis 
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Simple shear strain Constant Volume, but note
stretching of sides
Note:  is not symmetric
originally along x or y.
æ1 L ö
÷
L = ççç ÷
÷
% çè0 1 ø÷

æ1 0ö
÷
L = ççç ÷
÷
Rotate
% çèL 1ø÷

Not equivalent to

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Pure Shear
Pure shear: symmetric deformation tensor with unit
determinant – equivalent to stretch along 45 deg.

æ 1 + L2 L ö
çç ÷
÷
L = çç ÷
÷
% çç L 2÷
è 1+ L ÷
ø

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Pure shear as stretch
x  R i R i R j x 
1  1 1  x  x  i  
     y   U y  x  R j x  x 
y 2  1 1     
 
 U ijT j U 

   U U T
  
 1  2   0 
 
 0 1  2   
 

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Pure to simple shear
 cos  sin    1  2  
   
   sin  cos   
 1  2  
 t an  
1  2
 1  22 2 1  2 2 
 
 0 (1  22 ) 1 / 2 
 

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Cauchy Saint-Venant Strain
R=Reference space
T=Target space

dR 2 - dx 2 = 2u a bdx adx b

¶ Ri
L ia = = di a + hi a
uis invariant under rotations ¶ xa
in the target space but u = 21 ( LT L - d) » 21 ( h + hT )
transforms as a tensor under % %% % % %
rotations in the reference
space. It contains no
(
u a b = 21 ¶ a u b + ¶ b u a + ¶ a u k ¶ a u k )
information about orientation Symmetric!
of object.
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elastic energy
The elastic energy should be invariant under rigid rotations
in the target space: if is a function of u

F   x f (u )
D
1
2 d

  x [K  u u    u ]

D
1
2 d
This energy is automatically invariant under rotations in
target space. It must also be invariant under the point-
group operations of the reference space. These place
constraints on the form of the elastic constants.
Note there can be a linear “stress”-like term. This can
be removed (except for transverse random components)
by redefinition of the reference space
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elastic modulus tensor
Kis the elastic constant or elastic modulus tensor.
It has inherent symmetry and symmetries of the
reference space.
K   K   K   K 

Isotropic system
K        (        )
Uniaxial (n = unit vector along uniaxial direction)
K   C 1n  n  n  n   C 2 (n  n   T  n  n  
T
)
 C 3 
T
 T  21 C 4 ( 
T
 
T
 
T
 
T
)
 14 C 5 (n  n   
T
 n  n   
T
 n  n  
T
 n  n  
T
)

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Isotropic and Uniaxial Solid
Isotropic: free energy density f has
two harmonic elastic constants

f = f ( L ) = f (U LV - 1
) Invariant under
- 1 R( x) ® UR(Vx)
f = f (u ) = f (V uV )
 = shear modulus;
2 2
= Bu1
2
2
aa + mT ru% - C T ru% + D ( T ru% )
2 3
B = bulk modulus

Uniaxial: five harmonic elastic constants Invariant under

f = 21 C 1u zz2 + C 2u zz u nn + 21 C 3u nn
2
R( x) ® UR(Vuni x)

+ C 4u nt2 + C 5u n2z ;
xa = (xn , x z )
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Force and stress I
fi   i F ext   d D x fi u i    d D x  i  u i
external force density – vector in target space. The
stress tensor i is mixed. This is the engineering or 1st
Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor = force per area of
reference space. It is not necessarily symmetric!
dF ¶f du a b ( x ¢)
- = òd x¢
D
= fi = - ¶ a s i a
du i ( x) ¶ u a b ( x ¢) dui ( x)
du a b ( x ¢) ¶f II
= 1
(L ia ¶ ¢ + L i b ¶ a¢)d( x - x ¢) s ia = L ib º L i b s ba
du i ( x)
2 b ¶ u ba

II is the second Piola-Kirchhoff stress tensor - symmetric

Note: In a linearized theory, i = iII
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Cauchy stress
The Cauchy stress is the familiar force per unit area in the
target space. It is a symmetric tensor in the target space.
¶
Ñi º
ò ò
d I d C
d x s ¶ u
ia a i
= d R s ij
Ñ u
j i ¶ Ri

d d R = det L d d x ¶ ¶ Ri ¶
% ¶a = = = L ia Ñ i
¶ xa ¶ x a ¶ Ri

C 1 I T 1
s =
ij
s ia L a j = L i a s aIIb LTa j
det L det L
% %
C 1 Symmetric as required
s = L s II LT
% det L %% %
%

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Coupling to other fields
We are often interested in the coupling of target-space vectors
like an electric field or the nematic director to elastic strain.
How is this done? The strain tensor u is a scalar in the target
space, and it can only couple to target-space scalars, not
vectors.
Answer lies in the polar decomposition theorem

L = L( LT L )- 1/ 2 ( LT L )1/ 2 º Q M 1/ 2
% % T
%% %% %%- 1/ 2
M = L L = (d + 2u ); Q = L M
% %% % % % %%
OO T = L M - 1/ 2 ( L M - 1/ 2 )T = L M - 1/ 2M - 1/ 2 LT = L ( LT L )- 1 LT = d
%% %% %% %% % % %% % % %
M is symmetric and depends on u only.
% %
O is an orthogonal, unimodular rotation matrix
%
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Target-reference conversion
The rotation matrix O converts target-space
%
vectors E i to reference-space vectors E%a and vice-versa

E i = Oi a E%a ; E%a = O aTi E i

If L is symmetric, Oi a = di a .
%
Oi a » di a + 21 (¶ a u i - ¶ i u a )
» di a - ei a k Wk

To linear order in u, Oi has a term proportional to the

antisymmetric part of the strain matrix.

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Strain and Rotation

Symmetric Simple Shear

Rotation
shear

% is a reference space vector; it is equal to the

n
target space vector that is obtained when L is
symmetric

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Sample couplings
Coupling of electric field to strain
u a b E%a E%b = E iOi a u a bO bT j E j º vij E i E j
OuO T = 1
2 L ( LT L )- 1/ 2 ( LT L - d)( LT L )- 1/ 2 LT
%%% %% % %% % %% %
T
= 1
2 ( LL - d) = v
%% % %
Free energy no longer depends on the strain u only.
The electric field defines a direction in the target
space as it should
f T  f (u )  gE i E j vij ¶ Ri ¶ R i ¶ x b¢
 L ia = = = L i¢b L 0 ba
¶ xa ¶ x b¢ ¶ x a
Energy depends on
both symmetric and i   i  i
anti-symmetric parts
of ’
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Biopolymer Networks

cortical actin gel neurofilament network

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Characteristics of Networks
• Off Lattice
• Complex links, semi-flexible rather than
random-walk polymers
• Locally randomly inhomogeneous and
anisotropic but globally homogeneous and
isotropic
• Complex frequency-dependent rheology
• Striking non-linear elasticity

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Goals
• Strain Hardening (more resistance to
deformation with increasing strain) –
physiological importance
• Formalisms for treating nonlinear elasticity
of random lattices
– Affine approximation
– Non-affine

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Different Networks
Strain stiffening of semiflexible biopolymer networks
Max strain ~.25
1000
Collagen except for
vimentin and
polyacrylamide
NF
(Pa)

100 Vimentin
plat

Actin
Max stretch:
G or G'

Fibrin L()/L~1.13 at
NF 45 deg to
10 normal

0.01 0.1 1

Strain

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Semi-microscopic models
Random or periodic
crosslinked network: Elastic
energy resides in bonds
(links or strands)
connecting nodes

Rb = separation of nodes in bond b

Vb(| Rb |) = free energy of bond b
F = åb
V b ( Rb ) = N V (R ) R0
nb = Number of
bonds per unit
F volume of
ff = = nb V (R) R0 reference lattice
V
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Affine Transformations

Reference network: Strained target network:

Positions R0 Ri=ijR0j
F L = O ( LT L )1/ 2 = O (1 + 2u )1/ 2
f = = nb V (L R 0 ) % %% % % %
V % R0 O = L ( LT L )- 1/ 2 : Orthogonal
% %% %
Depends only on uij | L R b0 |= | (1 + 2u )1/ 2 Rb0 |
% %
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Example: Rubber
3 R2 Purely entropic force
V (R ) = T
2 Nb2
3 T T 1
F = nb V (L R) = 2
R 0
L LR0 = T n bT r L T L
% R
2 Nb %% R0
2 %%

3 é 3R 2 ù 1
P (R ) = exp ê- ú R 0i R 0 j = dij Nb2
2p Nb 2
êë 2Nb ú
2 3
û
R 02 = Nb2
Average is over the end-to-end separation in a
random walk: random direction, Gaussian magnitude

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Rubber : Incompressible Stretch
1 T 1
ff = T n b T r L L = T n bT r(1 + 2u )
2 %% 2 %
Unstable: nonentropic forces between atoms needed to
stabilize; Simply impose incompressibility constraint.
æL - 1/ 2 0 ö
0÷
çç ÷
çç ÷
L= ç 0 L - 1/ 2 0÷
÷
÷
çç ÷
÷
çç 0
è 0 L÷
÷
ø

1 æ 2 2ö
ff = = n bT ççL + ÷
÷
2 è Lø
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Rubber: stress -strain

¶ ¶ (AR LR ff ) ¶f
fz = (V ff ) = = AR AR= area in
¶L ¶ L LR ¶L
reference space
fz ¶ ff æ 1ö
s =e
= = nT ççL - ÷
2÷
Engineering stress AR ¶L è L ø
Physical Stress fz ¶f æ 2 1ö
s = = L = nT ççL - ÷
÷
A = AR/ = Area in A ¶L è Lø
target space æ
s nT çç(1 + g )2 - 1 ö÷
Y = = ÷
÷ ~ 3nT
Y=Young’s modulus g g çè 1+ gø

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

General Case
e ¶f ( L R 0 )i
Engineering s = ij
= n V '( L R 0 ) % R0j
stress: not ¶ L ij % | LR0 |
symmetric
% R0

( L R 0 )i
= n t i ( L R 0 )R 0 j = n t ( L R 0 ) % R 0j
% % | LR0 |
e ref
%
s ijdS j = s ijdS j dV (R )
Central force t ( R ) =
dS i = det L L -ji 1dS jref dR

Physical n t (L R 0 )
Cauchy Stress: s ij = % L ik R 0k L jl R 0l
det L | L R 0 |
Symmetric % % R0

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Semi-flexible Stretchable Link
L0 dR z
R [ t, v ] º L = ò 0
ds
ds
L0
» ò ds v éë1 - 1
2 | t ^ |2 ù
û
0

2
| t(s ) |= 1; t(s ) = ( t ^ (s ), 1- | t ^ (s ) | )

dR dR t = unit tangent
= v(s ) t(s ) = v
ds ds v = stretch

1 é ædt ö
2 ù
H = ò ds êk çç ^ ÷
÷ + v t | t | 2
+ K (v - 1) 2ú

2 ê çè ds
ë ø÷ ^ ú
û
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Length-force expressions
L(,K) = equilibrium length at given and K
æ t ö
L ( t , K ) = çç1 + ÷ ÷L 0[1 - g(j ( t , K ))];
è Kø
1 L ¥
1
1 2
g(j ) = 2 | t ^ | = 2 0
å 2
p Lp n = 1 n + j
;

L 0 p j cot h( p j ) - 1
= 2
Lp pj
L20 æ t ö k
j (t , K ) = t çç1 + ÷÷ ; Lp =
k p2 è Kø k BT

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Force-extension Curves

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Scaling at “Small” Strain
Theoretical curve:
calculated from
zero parameter fit to everything
K-1=0
G'/G' (0)

Strain/strain8

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

What are Nematic Gels?

• Homogeneous Elastic media with

broken rotational symmetry
(uniaxial, biaxial)
• Most interesting - systems with
broken symmetry that develops
spontaneously from a
homogeneous, isotropic elastic
state

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Examples of LC Gels
1. Liquid Crystal Elastomers - Weakly crosslinked
liquid crystal polymers

Nematic
Smectic-C
2. Tanaka gels with hard-rod
dispersion
3. Anisotropic membranes

4. Glasses with orientational order

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Properties I
• Large thermoelastic effects - Large
thermally induced strains - artificial muscles

Courtesy of
Eugene Terentjev

300% strain

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Properties II
Large strain in small
temperature range

Terentjev

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Properties III
• Soft or “Semi-soft” elasticity

Vanishing xz shear modulus

Soft stress-strain for stress Warner Finkelmann

perpendicular to order
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Model for Isotropic-Nematic trans.
2 2
f = Bu
1
2
2
aa + mT ru% - C T r u% + D ( T ru% )
2 3

u%a b = u a b - 1
3 da b u gg

 approaches zero signals a transition to a nematic state with a

nonvanishing

(
u%a b = S n a n b - 1
3 da b )

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
Phase transition to anisotropic
state as  goes to zero

u0 = 1
2 (L T
0 L 0 - d)

L0 = d + 2u 0 Direction of n0 is
arbitrary
u%a b = u%0a b Symmetric-
Traceless
= Y(n a0n b0 - 1
3 da b ) part u a a ~ Y2
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Strain of New Phase
R i ( x) = L 0ij x j + du i ( x) u’ is the strain relative
to the new state at
= x i¢+ u i¢( x ¢)
points x’
¶ Ri ¶ R i ¶ x k¢
L ij = = = L ik¢L 0kj
¶xj ¶ x k¢ ¶ x j
du = u - u 0 u is the deviation of
% % % the strain relative to the
= 21 ( LT L - L T0 L 0 ) original reference frame R
%% %% from u0
T
= L0u ' L0
%%%
u is linearly proportional
u ' = 2 ( L ¢ L ¢- d) » 2 ( h ¢+ h ¢ ) to u’
1 T 1 T

% %
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Elasticity of New Phase
Rotation of anisotropy
direction costs no energy
L 20||
r=
L 20^
u ' = (L )T - 1
0 (V u 0V - 1
- u 0) L - 1
0 u 'xz ~
(r - 1)
q
4 r
æ1 - cos 2q 1
r sin 2q ö
çç ÷
÷ C5=0 because of
= 4 (r - 1) ç 1
1
÷
çè r sin 2q - r ( 1 - cos 2q) ÷
1
ø rotational
÷
invariance
fel = 21 C 1u zz¢ + C 2u zz¢u nn
2
¢ + 21 C 3u nn
¢ u nn
¢ This 2nd order expansion
is invariant under all U
+ C 4u nt¢ u nt¢ + C 5u z¢nu z¢n but only infinitesimal V
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Soft Extensional Elasticity

æ1 - cos 2q 1
sin 2q ö
ç r ÷
÷
u = 14 (r - 1) çç 1 ÷
çè r sin 2q - 1 ÷
r ( 1 - cos 2q ) ø
÷

1
u zz = - u xx Strain uxx can be converted to a
r zero energy rotation by
1 developing strains uzz and uxz
u xz = u xx (r - 1 - 2u xx )
2r until uxx =(r-1)/2
7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures
Frozen anisotropy: Semi-soft
System is now uniaxial – why not simply use uniaxial elastic
energy? This predicts linear stress-stain curve and misses
lowering of energy by reorientation:
f = 21 C 1u zz2 + C 2u zz u nn + 21 C 3u nn
2
+ C 4u nt2 + C 5u n2z
Model Uniaxial system:
Produces harmonic uniaxial f h (u ) = f (u ) - hu zz
energy for small strain but has
nonlinear terms – reduces to f (u) : isotropic
isotropic when h=0
æ - 2u xz u xx - u zz ö
¢
Rotation u ® u = u + q ç ç ÷
÷
ççu xx - u zz 2 u ÷
è xz ÷
ø
f (u ¢) = f (u ) - h (u zz + 2qu xz )
h

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Semi-soft stress-strain
Ward Identity
df h
= - 2hu xz = 2s xz (u xx - u zz ) + 2(s zz - s xx )u xz
dq
(s xx - h )u xz
s xz = Þ u xz = 0 or s xx = h
u xx - u zz
h
¶f
s ab =
¶ ua b

Second Piola-Kirchoff
stress tensor.

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures

Semi-soft Extensions
Break rotational symmetry
Stripes form in real
systems: semi-soft, BC

Not perfectly soft because of residual

anisotropy arising from crosslinking in
the the nematic phase - semi-soft.
length of plateau depends on magnitude
of spontaneous anisotropy r.
Warner-Terentjev
Note: Semi-softness
only visible in nonlinear
Finkelmann, et al., J. Phys. II 7, 1059 (1997);
Warner, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 47, 1355 (1999) properties
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Softness with Director
Nunit vector along uniaxial direction in reference space;
layer normal in a locked SmA phase
n   (n , nz ) n2  1  (N   n )2  c2 ; u zz  N  u N  , et c.
Red: SmA-SmC transition
f = 21 C 1u zz2 + C 2u zz u nn + 21 C 3u nn
2
+ C 4u nt2 + l 1n%n2u zz
+ C 5u n2z + D2n%%n u
n z nz + 1
2 D %
n
1 n
2
+ 1
4 gn%n4 + l 2n%n2u t t + L
= 21 C 1u zz2 + C 2u zz u nn + 21 C 3u nn
2
+ C 4u nt2
+ 21 D1[n%n + (D2 / D1 )u nz ]2 + [C 5 - 1
2 (D 22 / D1)]u n2z
2
R 1 D2
C5 = C5 - = 0 Þ Soft
Director relaxes to zero 2 D1

7/18/05 Princeton Elasticity Lectures