• My soul lays bare in front of you My Lord.

You have
brought me in to this world naked in when
judgment come I shall be naked in front of you,
stripped of all the pretentions and lies of the world.
In my pilgrimage burn me Lord that I may become
the purest of gold. Wash me Lord so that I may be
as white as snow. And make me long for your Love,
so that I may show this longing by loving the people
that surrounds me, and the people whom I don’t
know and may not meet in my entire lifetime.
Welcome to the complicated world of
logic

Prepare for the ultimate “nosebleeds” of

your life
TIME TO GET SERIOUS…..
 Logic
• Basically this is not considered as a branch of
philosophy.
• It is the art and science of reasoning
• Basic question: How can we know that an
argument is valid or invalid?
Going deeper to logic…
 Logic
• Logos = Word, Wisdom, and, sometimes, God.
• Logic is the art and science of reasoning.
• Studies the validity, connection, and
truthfulness of statements.
• Zeno the Stoic created the discipline of logic
• But it was Aristotle who formalized logic and
called it as the organon (tool) of philosophy.
• Aristotle separated logic from the other fields
of philosophy to distinguish it more as a tool in
critical thinking and not a branch itself.
 Formal Logic and Material Logic
• Formal Logic = Symbolic logic
• Formal Logic Concerns itself primarily with the
correctnesss rather than the truth if a logical
process
• Material Logic is concerned with the material
content . It considers correspondence of the
thought-contents with reality.
 Divisions of Logic
• Simple apprehension is the act by which the
intellect grasps the essence of something
• Judgment is a mental operation that
pronounces the identity or non-identity
between two ideas
• Reasoning is a mental act that proceeds from
the previously known truth to a new truth.
Knowing Your Terms
 Simple Apprehension
• Is the process of abstracting or grasping the
essence of a thing without affirming or
denying anything about it
 Idea
• Is the mental sign whereby we grasp the
essence of a thing.
• Is the mental product of simple apprehension
 Term
• Is the verbal manifestation of an idea
• Is a conventional sign expressive of an idea
 Idea
Simple
Apprehension

TREE Term
CLASSIFICATION OF TERMS
 According to Comprehension
• Concrete
- it expresses something that has attributes that
can be perceived by the sense.
Examples: Chalk, chair, tv, etc.
• Abstract
- It expresses something from any single object.
It is a pure idea expressed in words
Examples: Love, freedom, hope, etc.
 According to Extension
• Singular – it represents a single object only
Examples: Barack Obama, Pope Benedict XVI,
etc.
• Universal – it represents not only a class as a
whole but also each member of the class.
Examples: Laptop, gadget, cats, animals
 According to Extension
• Particular – it represents only a part of the
universal whether definite or indifinite
Examples: many pages, few students, several
complaints
• Collective – it represents a number of things
-constituting a unit, group or whole.
Examples: family, choir, band.
 According to Origin
• Mediate – it is formed through the mediation
of other ideas
Example: Soul, God
• Immediate – it is formed from the direct
perception of things
Examples: chair, whistle, doll
 According to Relation
• Compatible – terms that can co-exist in a
subject.
Examples: fun and dangerous, hot and spicy
• Incompatible – are terms that cannot exist in
a subject.
 Four Types of Incompatible Terms
• Contradictory – terms that are mutually
exclusive of each other such that the
affirmation of one is the denial of the other.
Between these two terms, there is no middle
ground.
Examples: same – different, dead – alive, guilty -
innocent
 Four Types of Incompatible Terms
• Contrary – are terms that expresses extremes
belonging to the same class. Between these
two terms, there is a third ground.
Examples: rich – poor, fat – thin, fast – slow,
cheap – expensive
 Four Types of Incompatible Terms
• Privative – two opposite ideas, one which
expresses perfection, and the other its lack
that ought to be there.

Examples: sight – blindness, truth – error, sane -

insane
 Four Types of Incompatible Terms
• Correlative – two opposed terms that bear
mutual relation to one another such that one
cannot be understood without the other.

Examples: whole – part, cause – effect, husband

– wife, parent – child
 According to Meaning
• Univocal – a term that carries only one
meaning.
Examples: astronaut, computer, human person.
 According to Meaning
• Equivocal – a term that carries different
meanings in its different uses
a. Only in pronunciation
Examples: marry, Mary, merry
heal, hill
b. In pronunciation and spelling
Examples: March strike, dear, odd
 According to Object
• Real – it expresses something that has
existential actuality, whether positive or
negative
• Logical – it is used as a conceptual device to
facilitate learning
• Imaginary – it has no correspondence in
reality but is merely a fabrication of the mind.
 According to Quality
• Positive in form, positive in meaning
Examples: happy, victory, liberation
• Positive in form, negative in meaning
Examples: death, revenge, hate
• Negative in form, positive in meaning
Examples: Independence, immortal, undefeated
• Negative in form, negative in meaning
Examples: immature, illegal, restless
The Forms of Definitions that You
Need to Know…
 What is a definition?
• A definition is a group of words that assigns a
meaning to a word or group of words.
 Parts of a Definition
• Definiendum – a the word to be defined
• Definiens – words that do the defining.
TYPES OF DEFINITION
 Stipulative Definitions
• Assigns a meaning of the word for the first
time. This is applicable to newly coined word.
Example – selfie – is photographing one’s self,
mostly using camera phones, with the intention
to post such photo to a social media such as
Facebook, Tweeter, Instagram, etc.
 Lexical Definitions
• Is used to report the meaning that a word
already has in a language. All dictionary
definitions are instances of lexical definitions
 Precising Definition
• A definition which intends to remove the
vagueness of a word.
Examples: Rich people are people who earns
$10,000 annually while poor people are people
who earn less than $4000 annually
 Theoretical Definitions
• Assigns a meaning to a word by suggesting a
theory that gives a certain characterization to
the entities that suggests deductive
consequences.
 Persuasive Definition
• Is to engender a favorable or unfavorable
attitude toward what is denoted by the
definiendum.
Example:
Abortion means the murdering of innocent human
beings
Abortion means a safe and established surgical
procedure whereby a woman is relieved of an
unwanted burden.
DEFINITIONAL TECHNIQUES
 Extensional Definitions
• Is one that assigns a meaning to a term by
indicating the members of a class
TYPES OF EXTENSIONAL
DEFINITIONS
 Demonstrative Definitions
• Are probably the most primitive form of
definition
• This is done through pointing
 Enumerative Definitions
• Assigns a meaning to a term by naming the
members of the class the terms denote.
Examples:
Actor means a person such as, Dolphy, Vic
Sotto, Joey de Leon.
Visayas means Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol
 A Definition by Subclass
• Assigns a meaning to a term by naming
subclasses of the class denoted by the term.
Examples:
Tree means elm, narra, acacia, and the like
Cetacean means dolphin, a whale, or porpoise.
 Intensional Definition
• Is one that assigns a meaning to a word by
indicating the qualities or attributes that the
word connotes.
TYPES OF INTENSIONAL
DEFINITIONS
 Synonymous Defintiion
• Is one in which the definiens is a single word
that connotes the same attributes a the
definiendum
Examples:
“Physician” means doctor
“intentional” means willful
 Etymological Definition
• Assigns a meaning to a word by disclosing the
word’s ancestry in both its own language and
other languages.
Examples:
The English word “captain” comes from the Latin
word caput which means “head”
Definition by genus and difference
• Assigns a meaning to a term by identifying a
genus term and one or more difference words
that, when combined, convey the meaning of
the word being defined
 Example

Species Difference Genus

“Daughter” means • Female • Offspring
“Husband” means • Married • Man
“Doe” means • Female • Deer
“Fawn” means • Very youn • Deer
“Skyscraper means • Very tall • Building
CRITERIA FOR LEXICAL DEFINITIONS
• A definition should avoid vagueness and
ambiguity
• A definition should not be circular
• A definition should not be needlessly negative
• A definition be precise, that is it should not be
too broad, or too narrow.