Conservation Biology and Restoration Ecology: Powerpoint Lectures For

Chapter 55
Conservation Biology and

Restoration Ecology
PowerPoint Lectures for

Biology, Seventh Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
• Overview: The Biodiversity Crisis
– Conservation biology integrates the following fields
to conserve biological diversity at all levels
– Ecology
– Evolutionary biology
– Physiology
– Molecular biology
– Genetics
– Behavioral ecology
• Restoration ecology applies ecological
principles
– In an effort to return degraded ecosystems to
conditions as similar as possible to their
natural state

• Tropical forests
– Contain some of the greatest concentrations of
species
– Are being destroyed at an alarming rate
Figure 55.1
• Throughout the biosphere, human activities
– Are altering ecosystem processes on which we
and other species depend

• Concept 55.1: Human activities threaten
Earth’s biodiversity
• Rates of species extinction
– Are difficult to determine under natural
conditions
• The current rate of species extinction is high

– And is largely a result of ecosystem
degradation by humans
• Humans are threatening Earth’s biodiversity

The Three Levels of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity has three main components
– Genetic diversity
– Species diversity
– Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity in a vole population
Species diversity in a coastal redwood ecosystem
Community and ecosystem diversity

Figure 55.2 across the landscape of an entire region

Genetic Diversity
• Genetic diversity comprises
– The genetic variation within a population
– The genetic variation between populations

Species Diversity
• Species diversity
– Is the variety of species in an ecosystem or
throughout the biosphere

• An endangered species
– Is one that is in danger of becoming extinct
throughout its range
• Threatened species
– Are those that are considered likely to become
endangered in the foreseeable future

• Conservation biologists are concerned about
species loss
– Because of a number of alarming statistics
regarding extinction and biodiversity

• Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson has identified
the Hundred Heartbeat Club
– Species that number fewer than 100
individuals and are only that many heartbeats
from extinction
(a) Philippine eagle
(b) Chinese river

dolphin
(c) Javan
Figure 55.3a–c rhinoceros

Ecosystem Diversity
• Ecosystem diversity
– Identifies the variety of ecosystems in the
biosphere
– Is being affected by human activity

Biodiversity and Human Welfare
• Human biophilia
– Allows us to recognize the value of biodiversity
for its own sake
• Species diversity
– Brings humans many practical benefits

Benefits of Species and Genetic Diversity
• Many pharmaceuticals
– Contain substances originally derived from
plants
Figure 55.4
• The loss of species
– Also means the loss of genes and genetic
diversity
• The enormous genetic diversity of organisms

on Earth
– Has the potential for great human benefit

Ecosystem Services
• Ecosystem services encompass all the
processes
– Through which natural ecosystems and the
species they contain help sustain human life
on Earth

• Ecosystem services include
– Purification of air and water
– Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
– Cycling of nutrients
– Moderation of weather extremes
– And many others

Four Major Threats to Biodiversity
• Most species loss can be traced to four major
threats
– Habitat destruction
– Introduced species
– Overexploitation
– Disruption of “interaction networks”

Habitat Destruction
• Human alteration of habitat
– Is the single greatest threat to biodiversity
throughout the biosphere
• Massive destruction of habitat

– Has been brought about by many types of
human activity

• Many natural landscapes have been broken up
– Fragmenting habitat into small patches
Figure 55.5
• In almost all cases
– Habitat fragmentation and destruction leads to
loss of biodiversity

Introduced Species
• Introduced species
– Are those that humans move from the species’
native locations to new geographic regions

• Introduced species that gain a foothold in a
new habitat
– Usually disrupt their adopted community
(a) Brown tree
snake, intro-
duced to Guam
in cargo
Figure 55.6a, b (b) Introduced kudzu thriving in South Carolina

Overexploitation
• Overexploitation refers generally to the human
harvesting of wild plants or animals
– At rates exceeding the ability of populations of
those species to rebound

• The fishing industry
– Has caused significant reduction in populations
of certain game fish
Figure 55.7
Disruption of Interaction Networks
• The extermination of keystone species by
humans
– Can lead to major changes in the structure of
communities
Figure 55.8
• Concept 55.2: Population conservation focuses
on population size, genetic diversity, and
critical habitat
• Biologists focusing on conservation at the
population and species levels
– Follow two main approaches

Small-Population Approach
• Conservation biologists who adopt the small-
population approach
– Study the processes that can cause very small
populations finally to become extinct

The Extinction Vortex
• A small population is prone to positive-
feedback loops
– That draw the population down an extinction
vortex
Small
population
Genetic
Inbreeding
drift
Lower
reproduction
Higher
mortality
Loss of
genetic
Reduction in variability
individual
fitness and
population
adaptability
Smaller
population
Figure 55.9
• The key factor driving the extinction vortex
– Is the loss of the genetic variation necessary to
enable evolutionary responses to
environmental change

Case Study: The Greater Prairie Chicken and the
Extinction Vortex
• Populations of the greater prairie chicken
– Were fragmented by agriculture and later
found to exhibit decreased fertility

• As a test of the extinction vortex hypothesis
– Scientists imported genetic variation by
transplanting birds from larger populations

• The declining population rebounded
– Confirming that it had been on its way down an
extinction vortex
EXPRIMENT 200
Researchers observed that the population
Number of male birds

collapse of the greater prairie chicken was mirrored in a reduction in
fertility, as measured by the hatching rate of eggs. Comparison of
DNA samples from the Jasper County, Illinois, population with DNA 150
from feathers in museum specimens showed that genetic variation
had declined in the study population. In 1992, researchers began
experimental translocations of prairie chickens from Minnesota, 100
Kansas, and Nebraska in an attempt to increase genetic variation.
50
0
RESULTS 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
After translocation (blue arrow), the viability of
eggs rapidly improved, and the population rebounded. (a) Population dynamics Year
100
Eggs hatched (%) 90
80
70
60
50
CONCLUSION
The researchers concluded that lack of genetic 40
variation had started the Jasper County population of prairie 30
chickens down the extinction vortex. 1970-74 1975-79 1980-84 1985-89 1990 1993-97
Years
(b) Hatching rate
Figure 55.10
Minimum Viable Population Size
• The minimum viable population (MVP)
– Is the minimum population size at which a
species is able to sustain its numbers and
survive

• A population viability analysis (PVA)
– Predicts a population’s chances for survival
over a particular time
– Factors in the MVP of a population

Effective Population Size
• A meaningful estimate of MVP
– Requires a researcher to determine the
effective population size, which is based on the
breeding size of a population

Case Study: Analysis of Grizzly Bear Populations
• One of the first population viability analyses
– Was conducted as part of a long-term study of
grizzly bears in Yellowstone National Park
Figure 55.11
• This study has shown that the grizzly bear
population
– Has grown substantially in the past 20 years
150
Females with cubs
Cubs
Number of individuals
100
50
0
1973 1982 1991 2000
Figure 55.12
Year
Declining-Population Approach
• The declining-population approach
– Focuses on threatened and endangered
populations that show a downward trend,
regardless of population size
– Emphasizes the environmental factors that
caused a population to decline in the first place

Steps for Analysis and Intervention
• The declining-population approach
– Requires that population declines be evaluated
on a case-by-case basis
– Involves a step-by-step proactive conservation
strategy

Case Study: Decline of the Red-Cockaded
Woodpecker
• Red-cockaded woodpeckers
– Require specific habitat factors for survival
– Had been forced into decline by habitat

destruction
(a) A red-cockaded woodpecker perches at the
entrance to its nest site in a longleaf pine.
(b) Forest that can

(c) Forest that cannot sustain red-cockaded
sustain red-cockaded
woodpeckers has high, dense undergrowth that
woodpeckers has
Figure 55.13a–c low undergrowth.
impacts the woodpeckers’ access to feeding grounds.

• In a study where breeding cavities were
constructed
– New breeding groups formed only in these
sites
• On the basis of this experiment

– A combination of habitat maintenance and
excavation of new breeding cavities has
enabled a once-endangered species to
rebound

Weighing Conflicting Demands
• Conserving species often requires resolving
conflicts
– Between the habitat needs of endangered
species and human demands

• Concept 55.3: Landscape and regional
conservation aim to sustain entire biotas
• In recent years, conservation biology
– Has attempted to sustain the biodiversity of
entire communities, ecosystems, and
landscapes

• One goal of landscape ecology, of which
ecosystem management is part
– Is to understand past, present, and future
patterns of landscape use and to make
biodiversity conservation part of land-use
planning

Landscape Structure and Biodiversity
• The structure of a landscape
– Can strongly influence biodiversity

Fragmentation and Edges
• The boundaries, or edges, between
ecosystems
– Are defining features of landscapes
(a) Natural edges. Grasslands give way to forest ecosystems in

Yellowstone National Park.
(b) Edges created by human activity. Pronounced edges (roads)

surround clear-cuts in this photograph of a heavily logged rain
Figure 55.14a, b forest in Malaysia.

• As habitat fragmentation increases
– And edges become more extensive,
biodiversity tends to decrease

• Research on fragmented forests has led to the
discovery of two groups of species
– Those that live in forest edge habitats and
those that live in the forest interior
Figure 55.15
Corridors That Connect Habitat Fragments
• A movement corridor
– Is a narrow strip of quality habitat connecting
otherwise isolated patches

• In areas of heavy human use
– Artificial corridors are sometimes constructed
Figure 55.16
• Movement corridors
– Promote dispersal and help sustain
populations

Establishing Protected Areas
• Conservation biologists are applying their
understanding of ecological dynamics
– In establishing protected areas to slow the loss
of biodiversity

• Much of the focus on establishing protected
areas
– Has been on hot spots of biological diversity

Finding Biodiversity Hot Spots
• A biodiversity hot spot is a relatively small area
– With an exceptional concentration of endemic
species and a large number of endangered
and threatened species
Terrestrial
biodiversity
hot spots
Equator
Figure 55.17
• Biodiversity hot spots are obviously good
choices for nature reserves
– But identifying them is not always easy

Philosophy of Nature Reserves
• Nature reserves are biodiversity islands
– In a sea of habitat degraded to varying
degrees by human activity
• One argument for extensive reserves

– Is that large, far-ranging animals with low-
density populations require extensive habitats

• In some cases
– The size of reserves is smaller than the actual
area needed to sustain a population
0 50 100
Kilometers
43°
Yell
Gallatin R. o wst
oneR
Madison R.
Montana
42°
Wyoming
Yellowstone
Montana
National Shoshone R.
Idaho Park
41°
Sn
Grand Teton Biotic boundary for

ak
National Park short-term survival;

e
R.
MVP is 50 individuals.
40°
Wyoming
Biotic boundary for

Idaho
long-term survival;
MVP is 500 individuals.
Figure 55.18
Zoned Reserves
• The zoned reserve model recognizes that
conservation efforts
– Often involve working in landscapes that are
largely human dominated

• Zoned reserves
– Are often established as “conservation areas”
Nicaragua CARIBBEAN SEA
Costa
Rica
National park land
a
Buffer zone
Panam
PACIFIC OCEAN
(a) Boundaries of the zoned reserves are indicated by black outlines.
(b) Local schoolchildren marvel at the diversity of life in one of

Figure 55.19a, b Costa Rica’s reserves.

• Some zoned reserves in the Fiji islands are
closed to fishing
– Which actually helps to improve fishing
success in nearby areas
Figure 55.20
• Concept 55.4: Restoration ecology attempts to
restore degraded ecosystems to a more natural
state
• The larger the area disturbed
– The longer the time that is required for
recovery

• Whether a disturbance is natural or caused by
humans
– Seems to make little difference in this size-
time relationship
104
Natural disasters
Human-caused disasters
1,000 Natural OR human- Meteor

Recovery time (years)
caused disasters strike

(log scale)
Industrial Groundwater
pollution exploitation
Urbanization Salination
100 Modern Volcanic Acid
agriculture Flood eruption rain
Forest Nuclear Tsunami
Slash Oil fire bomb
& burn spill
10 Land-
slide
Tree
fall
Lightning
strike
1
10−3 10−2 10−1 1 10 100 1,000 104
Spatial scale (km2)
(log scale)
Figure 55.21
• One of the basic assumptions of restoration
ecology
– Is that most environmental damage is
reversible
• Two key strategies in restoration ecology

– Are bioremediation and augmentation of
ecosystem processes

Bioremediation
• Bioremediation
– Is the use of living organisms to detoxify
ecosystems

Biological Augmentation
• Biological augmentation
– Uses organisms to add essential materials to a
degraded ecosystem

Exploring Restoration
• The newness and complexity of restoration
ecology
– Require scientists to consider alternative
solutions and adjust approaches based on
experience

• Exploring restoration worldwide
Equator
Figure 55.22 Truckee River, Nevada. Kissimmee River, Florida.

Tropical dry forest, Costa Rica. Succulent Karoo, South Africa.
Figure 55.22 Rhine River, Europe. Coastal Japan.

• Concept 55.5: Sustainable development seeks
to improve the human condition while
conserving biodiversity
• Facing increasing loss and fragmentation of
habitats
– How can we best manage Earth’s resources?

Sustainable Biosphere Initiative
• The goal of this initiative is to define and
acquire the basic ecological information
necessary
– For the intelligent and responsible
development, management, and conservation
of Earth’s resources

Case Study: Sustainable Development in Costa
Rica
• Costa Rica’s success in conserving tropical
biodiversity
– Has involved partnerships between the
government, other organizations, and private
citizens

• Human living conditions in Costa Rica
– Have improved along with ecological
conservation
200 Life expectancy 80
Infant mortality
Infant mortality (per 1,000 live births)
70
150
Life expectancy (years)

60
100
50
50
40
0 30
1900 1950 2000
Year
Figure 55.23
Biophilia and the Future of the Biosphere
• Our modern lives
– Are very different from those of early humans
who hunted and gathered and painted on cave
walls
Figure 55.24a (a) Detail of animals in a Paleolithic mural, Lascaux, France

• But our behavior
– Reflects remnants of our ancestral attachment
to nature and the diversity of life, the concept
of biophilia
(b) Biologist Carlos Rivera Gonzales examining a tiny tree frog in

Figure 55.24b Peru
• Our innate sense of connection to nature
– May eventually motivate a realignment of our
environmental priorities

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Chapter 55

Conservation Biology and

PowerPoint Lectures for

Lectures by Chris Romero

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The current rate of species extinction is high

• Humans are threatening Earth’s biodiversity

Genetic diversity in a vole population

Species diversity in a coastal redwood ecosystem

Community and ecosystem diversity

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– The genetic variation between populations

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(b) Chinese river

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• The enormous genetic diversity of organisms

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Detoxification and decomposition of wastes

– Moderation of weather extremes

– And many others

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Disruption of “interaction networks”

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• Massive destruction of habitat

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 55.6a, b (b) Introduced kudzu thriving in South Carolina

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Number of male birds

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

– Had been forced into decline by habitat

(b) Forest that can

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

• On the basis of this experiment

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

(a) Natural edges. Grasslands give way to forest ecosystems in

(b) Edges created by human activity. Pronounced edges (roads)

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings