ILLUSTRATE THE 

RELATIONSHIP 
AMONG STRUCTURES
OF FLOWERS, 
FRUITS 
AND SEEDS.
 FLOWERS, FRUITS, AND SEEDS
>> FLOWERING PLANTS GROW IN A WIDE VARIETY OF HABITATS AND
ENVIRONMENTS. THEY CAN GO FROM GERMINATION OF A SEED TO A MATURE
PLANT PRODUCING NEW SEEDS IN AS LITTLE AS A MONTH OR AS LONG AS 150
YEARS. PLANTS THAT COMPLETE THEIR LIFE CYCLE IN A SINGLE SEASON ARE
CALLED ANNUALS; WHILE BIENNIALS TAKE TWO YEARS; AND PERENNIALS
MAY TAKE SEVERAL TO MANY YEARS TO GO FROM GERMINATED SEED TO
PRODUCING NEW SEEDS. THERE ARE TWO MAJOR CLASSES OF FLOWERING
PLANTS, MONOCOTS AND DICOTS—WHICH HAVE BEEN MENTIONED
PREVIOUSLY IN THE LEAVES AND STEMS TUTORIALS. IN ORDER TO KEEP
THESE TWO CLASSES SEPARATE IN OUR MINDS, LET’S TAKE A MOMENT AND
OUTLINE SOME OF THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THEM. 
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MONOCOTS AND DICOTS

> MONOCOTS: 
1.) One seed leaf - cotyledon 
2.) Flower component in the threes or multiples of three 
3.) Leaf  veins are parallel 
4.) No vascular or cork cambiums. 
5.) Vascular bundles are scattered  throughout the stem 
6.) One aperture (thin spot) in pollen grains 
> DICOTS:
1.) TWO SEED LEAVES – COTYLEDON
2.) FLOWER COMPONENTS IN FOUR
OR FIVES OR MULTIPLES OF FOURS OR FIVES
3.) LEAF VEINS ARE BRANCHING AND NETWORKED
4.) VASCULAR CAMBIUM PRESENT, USUALLY CORK
CAMBIUM PRESENT
5.) VASCULAR BUNDLES ARE ARRANGED IN A RING IN
THE STEM
6.) THREE APERUTURES IN POLLEN GRAINS
DICOTS ACCOUNT FOR SLIGHTLY UNDER THREE
QUARTERS OF ALL FLOWERING PLANTS. NEARLY
ALL FLOWERING TREES AND SHRUBS ARE DICOTS
AS WELL AS MANY ANNUAL PLANTS. MONOCOTS
INCLUDE BULB PRODUCING PLANTS, GRASSES,
ORCHIDS AND PALMS. THEY ARE PRIMARILY
HERBACEOUS, MEANING NO SECONDARY WOODY
GROWTH.
STRUCTURES OF FLOWERS
>> THERE ARE ALL SORTS OF FLOWER SHAPES, SIZES, COLORS AND
ARRANGEMENTS, HOWEVER THERE ARE A FEW FEATURES THAT ARE
CENTRAL TO ALL FLOWERS REGARDLESS OF THEIR FORM. A FLOWER
STARTS AS AN EMBRYONIC PRIMORDIUM THAT DEVELOPS INTO A BUD AND IS
SITUATION AS A SPECIALIZED BRANCH AT THE END OF A STALK CALLED THE
PEDUNCLE. THE RECEPTACLE IS A SMALL PAD-LIKE SWOLLEN AREA ON THE
VERY TOP OF THE PEDUNCLE. THIS SERVES AS THE PLATFORM FOR THE
FLOWER PARTS. WHORLS, WHICH ARE THREE OR MORE PLANT PARTS, ARE
ATTACHED TO THE RECEPTACLE. THE SEPALS ARE THE OUTERMOST WHORL
AND ARE USUALLY GREEN. SOMETIMES THEY ARE CONFUSED WITH LEAVES.
THEY ARE USUALLY THREE TO FIVE IN NUMBER AND ARE COLLECTIVELY
REFERRED TO AS THE CALYX. 
JUST AS THE SEPALS IN THE CALYX, THE PETALS IN THE COROLLA MAY BE
FUSED TOGETHER OR SEPARATE INDIVIDUAL UNITS.  NESTLED INSIDE THE
TWO OUTER WHORLS ARE THE SEXUAL ORGANS OF THE FLOWER. THE
STAMENS ENTAIL THE MALE STRUCTURES: A SEMI RIGID FILAMENT WITH A
SAC CALLED THE ANTHER DANGLING FROM THE TIP. POLLEN GRAINS
DEVELOP IN THE ANTHERS (A PROCESS WHICH WE WILL DISCUSS IN
FURTHER DETAIL IN A LATER TUTORIAL). MOST ANTHERS HAVE SLITS OR
PORES ON THE SIDES TO ACCOMMODATE POLLEN RELEASE. THE FEMALE
ORGANS ARE COLLECTIVELY REFERRED TO AS THE PISTIL AND INCLUDES: A
‘LANDING PAD’ AT THE TOP CALLED THE STIGMA, A SLENDER STALK LIKE
STYLE THAT LEADS DOWN TO THE SWOLLEN BASE CALLED THE OVARY. THE
OVARY IS WHAT WILL DEVELOP/RIPEN INTO A FRUIT.
>> AS YOU MIGHT HAVE GUESSED, THERE ARE NAMES FOR THE DIFFERENT
WAYS THAT THE FLOWER PARTS ARE ARRANGED WITH RESPECT TO THE
OVARY. THE OVARY IS SAID TO BE SUPERIOR IF THE CALYX AND COROLLA
ARE ATTACHED TO THE RECEPTACLE AT THE BASE OF THE OVARY.
HOWEVER, IF THE RECEPTACLE GROWS UP AND AROUND THE OVARY AND
THE CALYX AND COROLLA ARE ATTACHED ABOVE IT, THEN THE OVARY IS
SAID TO BE INFERIOR.

>> INSIDE THE OVARY IS AN EGG-SHAPED OVULE WHICH IS HELD IN PLACE

WITHIN THE OVARY BY MEANS OF A SHORT STALK. THE OVULE IS WHAT
DEVELOPS INTO A SEED. FRUITS HAVE SEEDS.
 FRUITS
>> A FRUIT IS A MATURE, OR RIPENED, OVARY THAT USUALLY CONTAINS
SEEDS. IN CONTRAST, A VEGETABLE CAN CONSIST OF LEAVES (LETTUCE,
CABBAGE), LEAF PETIOLES (CELERY), SPECIALIZED LEAVES (ONIONS),
STEMS (WHITE POTATO), STEMS AND ROOTS (BEETS), FLOWERS AND THEIR
PEDUNCLES (BROCCOLI), FLOWER BUDS (GLOBE ARTICHOKES) AND OR
OTHER PARTS OF THE PLANT. A FRUIT IS BY DEFINITION JUST THE OVARY
PART OF A FLOWER, THEREFORE ALL FRUITS COME EXCLUSIVELY FROM
FLOWERING PLANTS.​
​
 FRUIT RELIGIONS
>> A fruit, ripened ovary, has three major regions that are sometimes difficult to
distinguish from each other. The outer layer, sometimes referred to as the skin, is
actually called the exocarp. The mesocarp is the fleshy portion which is usually eaten
when consuming fruit. The endocarp is the innermost boundary around the seed.
Sometimes the endocarp is hard and stony such as a peach pit that surrounds the
seed. The endocarp can also be papery as in apples, where it is barely visible in
cross section. All three of these regions; the exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp, are
collectively called the pericarp. The pericarp can be quite thin, as is the case with dry
fruits. 
>> Some fruits have flower parts modified or fused to the ovary at maturity. Fruits are
classified according to features at maturity: fleshy, dry, split exposing seeds, non-
splitting, one ovary or multiple ovaries. We will go through these various classifications
and see what examples fall into the various categories.

KINDS OF FRUIT
Fleshy fruits—these fruits have a mesocarp that is at least partially fleshy at maturity. 
Simple Fleshy Fruits—Fruits develop from a flower with a single pistil. The ovary may
be simple, meaning derived from one modified leaf called a carpel, or compound. The
ovary also may be superior or inferior and may develop into a fruit with or without other
flower parts integrated. 
Drupe— Drupes are simple fleshy fruits with one seed encased in a stony pit. Usually
the ovary is a superior ovary with one ovule. The stone fruits—cherries, peaches, olives,
apricots and almonds—are examples. Although, not readily recognized as a fleshy fruit,
coconuts are drupes. The husk is the mesocarp and exocarp which is generally removed
before making it to the market. The pit with the watery seed endosperm is what we see
piled up at the store. 
Berry—These develop from a compound ovary and usually contain multiple seeds. It is
difficult to distinguish the three regions. This group is broken down further into three
types of berries: 
True berries—are fruits with a thin skin and a pericarp. They are generally soft at
maturity and usually have multiple seeds although dates and avocados are notable
exceptions. Some berries have incorporated flower parts which can be seen in remnant
as scars. Examples are tomatoes, grapes, peppers, blueberries, cranberries, bananas
and eggplants. Note that botanically speaking raspberries, strawberries and
blackberries are not berries. 
Pepos—are berry fruits with thick rinds. They have multiple seeds and include
pumpkins, watermelons, cantaloupes and squashes. 
Finally, the hesperidium is a leathery skinned berry that contains oils. Saclike
outgrowths of the inner ovary wall become filled with juice as the ovary matures. All
members of the Citrus Family produce hesperidium fruits.
Pome—The majority of the flesh in pomes comes from the swollen receptacle that
grows up and around the ovary (inferior ovary). The seeds are encased by a leathery or
papery endocarp. Apples are good examples and the apple core is the ovary with
seeds, and the rest if overgrowth of receptacle. (Sometimes these fruits that are derived
from more than the ovary are called accessory fruits.) Examples of pomes include:
apples, pears and quinces. 
Aggregate fruit—These fruits come from a single flower with multiple pistils. The
individual pistils start as tiny drupes or other fruitlets, but at maturity they cluster on a
single receptacle. Examples are strawberries, raspberries and blackberries. 
Multiple fruit—Several of many flowers in a single inflorescence will develop into a
multiple fruit. The flowers develop separately into fruitlets on their own receptacles, but
at maturity they will cluster together and develop into a larger single fruit. Pineapples
and figs are good examples, although the fig develops from a unique “outside in”
Inflorescence.