Assignment 1

(individual)
Please state and briefly discuss five
acts in laws and legislation related to
the environmental (15 marks)
 CHAPTER 2
Water Quality Standards
and
Parameters
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 Content
 PART 1: INTRODUCTION
i) Beneficial Water Uses
ii) Water Resources
 PART 2:WATER QUALITY
i) Definition
ii) Objectives
iii) Water Quality Parameters
 PART 3: WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
i) Physical
ii) Chemical
iii) Microbiological

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 PART 1
INTRODUCTION

i) Beneficial Water Uses

ii) Water Resources

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i) Beneficial Water Uses
 Municipal Uses
 Agricultural Uses
 Industrial Uses
 Rural Uses

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 ii) Water Resources
1. Snow / Rain
2. Surface Water
i) Watershed Management
ii) Lake /River /Reservoir
iii) Intake Structure
iv) Pump
v) Treatment Facilities

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Continues….
3. Imported water
i) Transmission Pipeline
ii) Treatment Facilities
4.Groundwater
i) Basin Management
 Natural and artificial recharge
 Quality Control
ii) Wells

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 PART 2:
WATER QUALITY
i) Definition
ii) Objective
iii) Water quality parameters

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i) Water quality-definition
Is the technical term that is based
upon the characteristics of water in
relation to guideline values of what is
suitable for human consumption and
for all usual domestic purpose

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ii) Objective of water quality

To control the discharge of pollutants

so that water quality is not degraded
to an unacceptable extent below the
natural background level

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 iii) Water environmental quality
parameters

- Are the natural and man-made chemical,

biological and microbiological
characteristics of rivers, lakes and
groundwaters.
- it provide important information about
the health of a water body.

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 Are used to find out if the quality
water is good enough for drinking
water, recreation, irrigation and
aquatic life.
 These include chemical, physical and
biological parameters

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 PART 3:

WATER QUALITY
PARAMETERS

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 Water quality parameters

1. Physical 2. Chemical
parameters parameters

3. Biological
parameters

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1.Physical parameters
- This parameters respond to the sense
of sight, touch, taste or smell
Suspended solid

odor color turbidity

temperature
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a)Turbidity
 Is a measure of the amount of particulate
matter that is suspended in water. Unit-
NTU (Nephlometric Turbidity Unit)
 Water that has HIGH turbidity appears
CLOUDY/ OPAQUE.
 HIGH turbidity can cause INCREASED of
water TEMPERATURE

WHY???
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It is because…

- More suspended particles will absorb more heat

which in turn lowers dissolved O2 levels.
- Such particles (ss – clay, silt, finely divided
organic material, plankton) can also prevent
sunlight from reaching plants below surface hence
DECREASE the rate of PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
- So, LESS O2 is produced by plant

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b) Temperature
 It is a major factor in determining which
species are present in the stream
 Temperature will impacts:

i) the rates of metabolisme and growth of

aquatic organism
ii) rate of plant photosynthesis
iii) solubility of O2 in water
iv) organism’s sensitivity to disease,
parasites and toxic materials
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Continues…
 Cool water tastes better
 Temperature affects rate of chemical
and microbiological reactions
 The most suitable drinking waters are
consistently cool and do not have
temperature fluctuations of more than
a few degrees
 Groundwater and surface water from
mountain area generally meet these
criteria
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c) Solids
 Total Solids (TS)
 TSS (Total Suspended Solids)
 Dissolved solids
 Volatile Solids
 Volatile Disolved Solids
 mg/l

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d) color
 It is due to the presence of dissolved and
suspended matter (metallic ions, chemical
pollutants, plankton and plant pigments from
humus and peat.
 These substance do not threaten stream water
quality, but indicate INCREASED DEVELOPMENT
in watershed.

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Continues…
 Dissolved organic material from humic
substances generally lend a brown or ‘tea’
color to water
 Dissolved organic material from vegetation
and certain inorganic matter may cause
color in water

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Continues…
 Taste problems relating to water could be
indicators of changes in water sources or
treatment process
 Inorganic compound such as magnesium,
calcium, sodium, copper, iron and zinc are
generally detected by taste of water.

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e) Taste & Odor
 Caused by foreign matters such as organics
compounds, inorganic salts, bacteria, algae and
dissolved gases
 Measurement: Threshold Odor Number (TON)
 Examples:
i) addition of ammonia to form monochloramine in the
pipes
ii) excessive manganese & iron present in the finished
water.
** manganese & iron often found in groundwater
supplies where the overall quality of the water is good
but there is a high amount of soluble salt. These
metals then react with O2 in the distribution system
to produced the reduced and insoluble form of the
metal**
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 2. Chemical parameters
 Chemical quality refers to general water
characteristics and dissolved mineral
levels in the water
 Due to certain industries and
agricultural practices or from natural
resources.

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Continues…
 It is an important indicators of water quality; humans,
plants and animals
 Chemical attributes of water can affect aesthetic qualities
such as how water looks, smells and tastes.
 Assessment of water quality by its chemistry
includes measures of many elements and molecules
dissolved or suspended in the water

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Continues…
 Chemical measures can be directly detect
pollutants such as lead and mercury
 Also used to detect imbalances within the
ecosystem. Such imbalance may indicate the
presence of certain pollutant.
 pH, alkalinity, hardness, nitrates, nitrites, and
ammonia, phosphates, dissolved O2 and
biochemical O2 demand are commonly
measured chemical parameters
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 CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

pH hardness
Dissolved oxygen
alkalinity (DO)

Nitrites and nitrates Biochemical oxygen

demand (BOD)

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Assignment (Individual)
 There are three major parameters in
determining the water quality. One of them
is physical parameters. Please state and
describe in details the other two major
parameters. (15 marks)

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Chemical parameters
1) pH
- It is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen
ions
- The term pH was derived from the manner in
which the hydrogen ion concentration is
calculated
- pH scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is
considered to be neutral.
- Substances with pH of less than 7 are acidic;
substances with pH greater than 7 are basic
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Continues..
 affectschemical and biological
reactions
 Low pH is corrosive
 High pH cause deposits

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2) Hardness
- Stream water hardness is the total concentration
of cations, specifically calcium
(Ca2+ ),magnesium (Mg2+ ), iron (Fe2+ ),
manganese (Mg2+ ) in the water.
- Water rich in these cations is said to be ‘hard’.
Stream water hardness reflects the geology of
the catchment area.
- Sometimes it also provides a measure of the
influence of human activity

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Continues…
 For instance, acid mine drainage often
results in the release of iron into a stream.
The iron produces extraordinarily high
hardness is a useful water quality indicator.
 Hardness is a reflection of the amount of
calcium and magnesium entering the
stream through the weathering of rock such
as limestone (CaC03)

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3) Alkalinity
 Is measured to determine the ability of a stream to
resist changes in pH.
 Alkalinity results from the dissolution of calcium
carbonate (CaC03) from limestone bedrock which is
eroded during the natural processes of weathering
 Alkalinity values of 20 -200 ppm are common in
freshwater ecosystems. Alkalinity levels below 10
ppm indicate poorly buffered streams.
 These stream are the least capable of resisting
changes in pH, therefore they are most susceptible to
problems which occur as a result of acidic pollutants

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4) Nitrates, nitrites and ammonia
 Nitrogen is an essential nutrient that is required
by all plants and animals for the formation of
amino acids.
 In its molecular form, nitrogen cannot be used by
most aquatic plants, therefore it must be
converted to another form.
 One such form is ammonia (NH3). Ammonia may
be taken up by plants or oxidized by bacteria into
nitrate (NO3-) or nitrate (NO2). Of these two forms,
nitrate is usually by the most important.
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 5) Biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD)
 It is a measure of the quantity of oxygen used by
microorganisms (eg.aerobic bacteria) in the
oxidation of organic matter.
 In other words: BOD measures the change in
dissolved oxygen concentration caused by the
microorganisms as they degrade the organic
matter.
 High BOD is an indication of poor water quality

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6) Dissolved oxygen (DO)
 It is an essential for the survival of nearly all
aquatic life and measured in mg/L
 If oxygen levels are high, it was presume
that pollution levels in the water are low.
 Conversely, if oxygen levels are low, one
can presume there is a high oxygen
demand and that the body of water is not of
optimal health

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Continues…
 Levels of DO vary depending on factors including
water temperature, time of day, season, depth,
altitude and rate of flow.
(i) water at higher temp and altitudes will have
LESS DO. so, demand O2 will increased because
at higher temp, the rate of metabolisme is
increased.
(ii) at night, DO decreased as photosynthesis has
stopped while oxygen consuming process such
as respiration, oxidation
(iii) DO reaches its peak (HIGH) during the day
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 3. Biological parameters
 It is biomonitor: defined as an organism that
provides quantitative information on the quality of
the environmental around it.
 It can be deduced through the study of the
content of certain elements or compounds,
morphological or cellular structure, metabolic-
biochemical process behavior or population
structure

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Continues..
 There are several types of bioindicators:
(i) plant indicators
- the presence or absence of certain plant or other vegetative
life in an ecosystem can provide important clues about the
health of the environment
- lichens are organism comprising both fungi and algae.
Lichens are found on rocks and tree trunks, and they
respond to environmental changes in forest, including
changes in forest structure conservation biology, air quality
and climate
- The disappearance of lichens in a forest may indicate
environmental stresses, such as high level of sulfur dioxide,
sulfur-based pollutants and nitrogen oxides
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Continues…
(ii) Animal indicator and toxins
- an increase or decrease in an animal population
may indicate damage to the ecosystem caused
by pollutant. For eg; if population causes the
depletion of important food sources, animal
species dependent upon these food sources will
also be reduced in number: population decline
- Submerged aquatic vegetation (SAV) provides
invaluable benefits to aquatic ecosystems. It not
only provides food and shelter to fish and
invertebrates but also produces oxygen, trap
sediment and absorbs nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorus

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Continues…
(iii) Microbial indicators and chemical pollutants
- Microorganisms can be used as indicators of aquatic or
terrestrial ecosystem health
- Found in large quantities, microorganism will
produce new proteins, called stress proteins when
exposed to contaminants like cadmium and
benzene
- These stress proteins can be used as an early
warning system to detect high levels of pollution

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Continues…
(iv) Macroinvertebrate bioindicators
- Macroinvertebrate are useful and
convenient indicators of the ecological
health of a waterbody or river. They are
almost always present, and are easy to
sample and identify
- Benthic refers to the bottom of a waterway.
Example of benthic macroinvertebrates
include insects in their larval or nymph form,
crayfish, claims, snails and worms. Most live
part or most of their life cycle attached to
submerged rocks, logs and vegetation.
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Continues…
- The basic principle behind the study of
macroinvertebrates is that some a re more
sensitive to pollution than others
- Therefore, if a stream site is inhabited by
organism that can tolerate pollution and the
more pollution-sensitive organisms are
missing a pollution is likely

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Microbiological
 Bacteria( coliform test)
 Virus
 Protozoa
 Algae

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Bacteria
 Pathogenic bacteria causing cholera,
typhoid fever etc
 Indicator bacteria
 Coliform
 Fecal Coliform( E. Coli)

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Virus
 One virus can cause illness
 Hard to detect
 Specify treatment process
( disinfection dose and contact time)
instead of measuring virus
concentration

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Algae
 Taste and odor
 Some algae cold be harmful to
animals
 fish
 birds

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EFFECTS ON WATER QUALITY
1) Toxic inorganic
2) Nontoxic organic
3) Toxic organic

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Toxic inorganic elements
and radicals
 Arsenic, Mercury, Cadmium, Chromium,
Lead-- accumulates in body
 Industrial wastes and plumbing
 Lead and Copper Rule
 Nitrate--Blue baby
 Perchlorate ( ClO4-) --Thyroid disorder,
cancer

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Nontoxic organics
 NOC ( Natural organic matter)
Decayed vegetation etc
 Form toxic disinfection by-products
with chlorine
 Lower concentrations up to 4 mg/l
may be removed by Enhanced
Coagulation.

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Toxic organics
Causing cancer, mutation or
miscarriage
 chlorinated hydrocarbons
 Chlorophenoxy herbicides
 Trihalomethanes
 VOC’s and SOC’s.

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Other Contaminants
 Asbestos
 Radionuclides
 Alpha and Beta radioactivity
 Uranium, Radium, Radon

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 WATER QUALITY
MEASUREMENT
a) ThOD – theoretical oxygen
demand
(i) It is the amount of O2 required to
oxidize a substance to CO2 and H2O
(ii) Calculated by stoichiometry if the
chemical composition of the substance is
known
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Example:

 Compute the ThOD of 108.75 mg/L of

glucose (C6H12O6)
 STEPS:
(i) write balanced equation for the reaction
(ii) Compute the grams molecular weights of
the reactants
(iii) Determine ThOD

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 Exercise
(5.1, 5.2, 5.3-in the text book)
1. Glutamic acid (C5H904N) is used as one of the
reagents for a standard to check the BOD test.
Determine the ThOD of mg/L of glutamic acid.
Assume the following reaction apply:
C5H904N + 4.5O2 5CO2 + 3H2O + NH3
NH3 + 2O2 NO3+ H+ + H2O

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b) BOD
biochemical oxygen demand
 The actual BOD is LESS than ThOD due to
incorporation of some of carbon into new bacterial
cells
 The greater the amount of organic matter present,
the greater the amount of oxygen utilized
 It is indirect measurement of organic matter becoz
we actually measure only the change in dissolved
concentration caused by the microorganism as
they degrade the organic matter

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Continue..
a) BOD was calculated using the formula

BODt = Lo(1-10-kt )
Lo = oxygen equivalent of organic compound
at time t = 0/ ultimate BOD
t=time
k=2.303 (K)
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Exercises:
 Problems 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6 in the text book

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Continue…
b) Thomas’ graphical method
- Used to find BOD constant, k
- Procedure:

i) Calculate the value of (t/BODt)1/3 for each

day.
ii) Plot (t/BODt)1/3 versus t on arithmetic graph
paper and draw the line of fit by eye
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Continues….
iii) Determine the intercept (A) and slope (B)
from the plot
iv) Calculate k and Lo using formula:

k = 6 (B/A) Lo = 1/ 6(A)2(B)

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Exercise….
Problem 5.19, 5.20 and 5.21 from the text
book.
Additional:
Please calculate the BOD after six days for
each problem.

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 DO sag curve (page 373 text book)

-the concentration of DO in a river is an indicator of the general

health of the river.
- All rivers have CAPACITY for self purification.
(i) As long as the discharge of oxygen demanding wastes is well
within the self purification capacity, the Do level remain HIGH
and a diverse population of plants and animals
(ii) As the amount of waste increase, the self purification
capacity can be exceeded, causing detrimental changes in plant
and animal life

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continues….
(iii) then, the stream losses its ability to clean itself
and the DO level DECREASES.
(iv) when the DO drops below 4 to 5 mg/L,
most game fish will have been driven out.
(v) If the DO is completely removed, fish and other
higher animals are killed or driven
(v) The water become blackish and foul smelling as
the sewage and dead animal life decompose
under anaerobic condition (without O2)

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 SO……
 ABILITY TO ASSESS THE
CAPABILITY OF A STREAM TO
HOW????
ABSORB A WASTE LOAD is one of the
major tools of water quality management.
BY DETERMINING
THE PROFILE OF DO CONCENTRATION
DOWNSTREAM FROM A WASTE
DISCHARGE
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To develop mathematical expression
of DO sag curve…..
- The sources of O2 and the factors affecting
oxygen depletion must be identified and
quantified
- Significant SOURCE:
i) REAERATION from the atmosphere and
photosynthesis from aquatic plants
- FACTORS effecting O2 depletion
i) BOD of the waste discharge
ii) BOD already in the river upstream of the
waste discharge
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continues…
iii) DO in the waste discharge is usually less
than that in the river
SO
The DO at the river is LOWERED as soon
as the waste is added.
iv) The respiration of organism living in the
sediments and respiration of aquatic
plants
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 DO sag curve
approach
Approach

Mass balance Heat balance

 (1)Mass balance approach
Mass of DO in wastewater, QwDOw

Mass of DO Mass of DO in river

after mixing,
in river QrDOr QwDOw + QrDOr

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continues…
Mass of BOD after mixing:

QwLw + QrLr
Lw = ultimate BOD of the waste
water, mg/L
Lr = ultimate BOD of the river, mg/L

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 Sum of wastewater
continues… and river flows

 The concentration of DO after mixing and

initial ultimate BOD after mixing, La

DO= QwDOw + QrDOr

waste
Qw + Qr
La = QwLw + QrLr
Lw & Lr:
Qw + Qr
Ultimate
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 Calculation: example
The town of State College discharge 18, 360
m3/d of treated wastewater into the Bald
Eagle Creek. The treated wastewater has a
BOD5 of 14 mg/L and a k of 0.12d-1 at 20˚C.
bald Eagle Creek has a flow rate of 0.46
m3/s and ultimate BOD of 5.0 mg/L. The
DO of the river is 6.7 mg/L and the DO of
the wastewater is 1.0 mg/L. Compute the
DO and initial ultimate BOD after mixing

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Solution….
DO= QwDOw + QrDOr
Qw + Qr

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 (2) Heat balance
 For TEMPERATURE consideration
 From fundamental principle of physics:
Loss of heat = gain of heat by
by hot bodies cold bodies
 (a) TEMPERATURE
Temperature after mixing:

Tf= QwTw + QrTr

Qw + Qr
 Is dependent on water
temp – it decreases as the
(b) Oxygen deficit temp increases

- it is the amount by which the actual

dissolved oxygen concentration is less
than the (saturation value) with respect
to oxygen in the air

Actual
D= DOs-DO Concentration of
DO, mg/L
Oxygen
deficit, mg/L Saturation concentration
of DO, mg/L
(c) Initial deficit
- Beginning of the sag curve: a point where a
waste discharge mixes with the river
- Use the downstream temperature when
determining the saturation concentration of
DO
- Initial deficit- is calculated as the difference
between saturated DO and the
concentration of DO after mixing
Continues…
-equation for initial deficit:

Da = DOs - QwDOw + QrDOr

Q w + Qr
Initial deficit after Saturation concentration
river and waste of dissolved oxygen at the
has mixed, mg/L temperature of the river
after mixing, mg/L
Exercise:
1)The town of State College discharge
18,400 m3/d of treated wastewater into the
Bald Eagle Creek. The treated wastewater
has a BOD5 of 10 mg/L and a k of 0.12/d at
20°C. Bald Eagle Creek has a flow rate of
0.45 m3/s and an ultimate BOD of 4.0mg/L.
The DO of the river is 5.5mg/L and the DO
of the wastewater is 1.5mg/L. Compute the
DO and initial ultimate BOD after mixing.
exercise
2) Calculate the initial deficit of the Bald Eagle
Greek after mixing with the waste water
from the town of the State College (see
Exercise 1 for data). The stream
temperature is 10°C and the wastewater
temperature is 10°C

**DOs can be determined from the table in

Appendix A
(d) DO sag equation
-

D = kdLa (e-k dt – e-k rt) + Da(e-k rt)

kr - kd
D= oxygen deficit in river water after exertion of BOD for time, t, mg/L
La = initial ultimate BOD after river and wastewater have mixed, mg/L
Kd= deoxygenation rate constant
Kr = reaeration rate constant
t=time of travel of wastewater discharge downstream, d
Da = initial deficit after river and wastewater have mixed, mg/L
continues…
When kr = kd, the equation reduces to:
(where the terms are previously defined)

D = (kdtLa + Da)(e-k t)
d
(e) Deoxygenation rate constant,
kd
 It defers from the BOD rate constant, k because
there are physical and biological differences
between a river and BOD bottle
 In general, BOD exerted more rapidly in a river
because of turbulent mixing, larger number of
seed organism and BOD removal by organism
 BOD rate constant, k rarely has a value greater
than 0.7/day, kd may be as large as 7/day
 BOD rate constant
continues… Determined in lab at
20˚C, day-1
 Equation for kd:

Kd=k + (v/H)ŋ Bed-activity

coefficient

Deoxygention rate
Constant at 20˚C,
Average depth of
day-1 Average speed of
Stream, m
Stream flow, m/s
exercise
3) Determine the deoxygenation rate constant for the
reach of Bald Eagle Greek (Exercise 1 and 2) below the
wastewater outfall (discharge pipe). The average speed
of the stream flow in the creek is 0.03 m/s. The depth is
5.0m and the bed activity coefficient is 0.35.
kT = k20 (θ)T-20
(f) Reaeration rate constant

kr = 3.9v0.5
H1.5
 MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
 Water quality management in rivers using the DO
sag curve is to DETERMINE THE MINIMUM DO
CONCENTRATION THAT WILL PROTECT THE
AQUATIC LIFE IN THE STREAM.
 DO standard is generally set to protect the most
sensitive species that exist or could exist in
particular river
continues….
 That’s why DO sag equation can be
solved to find the DO at the critical
point.
If the DO at the critical point is
LESS than standard, the stream
can adequately assimilate the
waste
continues…
 The ultimate BOD of the waste discharge
can be reduced, thereby La by:
1) Increasing the efficiency of the existing
treatment process

2) Adding additional treatment steps

3) Reduce Da –by adding oxygen to the waste

water to bring it close to saturation prior to discharge