In the name of Allah the Most Gracious the Most Merciful

11
Evolution of Water Turbines

2 2
Kaplan turbine and electrical
generator cut-away view.

Water Turbine
 What is Evolution ?
1. BIOLOGY theory of development from earlier forms: the theoretical process
by which all species develop from earlier forms of life. On this theory, natural variati
on in the genetic material of a population favors reproduction by some individuals m
ore than others, so that over the generations all members of the population come to p
ossess the favorable traits.
2. BIOLOGY developmental process: the natural or artificially induced process b
y which new and different organisms develop as a result of changes in genetic materi
al
3. gradual development: the gradual development of something into a m
ore complex or better form • the evolution of democracy in Western Europe
4. PHYSICS giving off heat or gas: the emission of heat, gas, or vapor
5. pattern caused by movement: a pattern formed by a series of movements
6. MATHEMATICS finding root of number: an algebraic operation in which the
root, for example, the square root or cube root, of a number is found.
See also involution
7. MILITARY military exercise: a military exercise or maneuver carried out acco
rding to a plan
55
Evolution

66
Evolution of man
 Hydropower to Electric Power

Electrical
Potential Energy
Energy
Electricity

Kinetic
Energy

Mechanical
Energy

8
 Hydropower
 Energy in water can be harnessed and used.
 Since water is about 800 times denser than air, eve
n a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea s
well, can yield considerable amounts of energy.
 There are many forms of water energy:
 Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams
.
 Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce
up to 100 kW of power. They are often used in water rich areas as a remote-area po
wer supply (RAPS).
 Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity systems derive kinetic energy from rivers and o
ceans without using a dam.

99
 Types of Hydroelectric Installation

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003

 Power in water

 The power available in a stream of water is;

• where:
• P = power (J/s or watts)
• η = turbine efficiency
• ρ = density of water (kg/m³)
• g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s²)
• h = head (m). For still water, this is the difference in height betwee
n the inlet and outlet surfaces. Moving water has an additional co
mponent added to account for the kinetic energy of the flow. The t
otal head equals the pressure head plus velocity head.
• q= flow rate (m³/s)

11
11
 Hydroelectricity
 is the term referring to electricity generated by hydropower; the production of
electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowin
g water.
 It is the most widely used form of renewable energy, accounting for 16 perce
nt of global electricity generation – 3,427 terawatt-hours of electricity product
ion in 2010, and is expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the next 25
years.
 Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region gener
ating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010.
 China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of prod
uction in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use.
 There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW:
 the Three Gorges Dam in China,
 Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border,
 and Guri Dam in Venezuela
Large-scale hydroelectric dams.
 Ten of the largest hydroelectric producers as at 2009
Annual Installed  % of
Capacity
hydroelectric capacity total
factor
Country production (GW) capacity

                                 
(TWh)
 
                
             
                     
    
       
       China 652.05 196.79 0.37 22.25
       Canada 369.5 88.974 0.59 61.12
       Brazil 363.8 69.080 0.56 85.56
       U.S.A 250.6 79.511 0.42 5.74
       Russia 167.0 45.000 0.42 17.64
       Norway 140.5 27.528 0.49 98.25
       India 115.6 33.600 0.43 15.80

       Venezuela 85.96 14.622 0.67 69.20

       Japan 69.2 27.229 0.37 7.21

       Sweden 65.5 16.209 0.46 44.34
15
 Top 10 largest power producing facilities
Electricity
Capacity generation
Rank Station Country Fuel type
(MW) per annum
(TWh)
1 Three Gorges Dam  China 22,500 84.37 Hydroelectricity
 Brazil
2 Itaipu Dam 14,000 94.69 Hydroelectricity
 Paraguay
3 Guri Dam  Venezuela 10,235 53.41 Hydroelectricity
4 Tucuruí Dam  Brazil 8,370 21.4 Hydroelectricity
Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclea
5  Japan 8,212 24.63 Nuclear
Power Plant

6 Bruce Nuclear Generating Station  Canada 6,810 36.25 Nuclear

7 Grand Coulee Dam  United States 6,809 21 Hydroelectricity
8 Longtan Dam  China 6,426 Hydroelectricity
9 Uljin Nuclear Power Plant  South Korea 6,157 44.81 Nuclear
Yeonggwang Nuclear Power
10  South Korea 6,139 48.16 Nuclear
Station

16
 Largest Hydroelectric power stations
Installed
Rank Name Country River Capacity Years of completion
(MW)
1 Three Gorges Dam  People's Republic of China Yangtze 22,500 2003/2012 
2 Itaipu Dam  Brazil  Paraguay Paraná 14,000 1984/1991, 2003
3 Guri  Venezuela Caroní 10,200 1978, 1986
4 Tucuruí  Brazil Tocantins 8,370 1984
1942/1950, 1973,
5 Grand Coulee  United States Columbia 6,809
1975/1980, 1984/1985

6 Longtan Dam  People's Republic of China Hongshui 6,426 2007/2009

7 Krasnoyarskaya  Russia Yenisei 6,000 1972
8 Robert-Bourassa  Canada La Grande 5,616[ 1979/1981
9 Churchill Falls  Canada Churchill 5,428 1971/1974
10 Bratskaya  Russia Angara 4,500 1967
11 Laxiwa Dam  People's Republic of China Yellow 4,200 2010
11 Xiaowan Dam  People's Republic of China Mekong 4,200  2010
13 Ust Ilimskaya  Russia Angara 3,840 1980

13 Sayano Shushenskaya  Russia Yenisei 3,840 1985/1989, 2010/2014

15 Tarbela Dam  Pakistan Indus 3,478 1976/1993

17
 Scale of Hydropower Projects
 Mega-hydro:
o More than 500 MW feeding into a large electricity grid
 Large-hydro
– More than 100 MW feeding into a large electricity grid
 Medium-hydro
– 15 - 100 MW usually feeding a grid
 Small-hydro
– 1 - 15 MW - usually feeding into a grid
 Mini-hydro
– Above 100 kW, but below 1 MW
– Either stand alone schemes or more often feeding into the grid

18
18
 Scale of Hydropower Projects

 Micro-hydro
– From 5kW up to 100 kW
– Usually provided power for a small community or rural industry in remote
areas away from the grid.

 Pico-hydro
– From a few hundred watts up to 5kW
– Remote areas away from the grid.
 Turbine
 Turbine, rotary engine that converts the energy of a moving stream of wate
r, steam, or gas into mechanical energy.
 The basic element in a turbine is a wheel or rotor with paddles, propellers,
blades, or buckets arranged on its circumference in such a fashion that the
moving fluid exerts a tangential force that turns the wheel and imparts ener
gy to it.
 This mechanical energy is then transferred through a drive shaft to operate
a machine, compressor, electric generator, or propeller.
 Turbines are classified as hydraulic, or water, turbines, steam turbines,
or gas turbines.
 Today turbine-powered generators produce most of the world's electrical e
nergy.
 Windmills that generate electricity are known as wind turbines

20
20
 Hydraulic Turbine
 Hydraulic Turbine, machine that con
verts the energy of a stream of water
into mechanical energy, which is oft
en used to generate electricity.
 A water turbine is a rotary engi
ne that takes energy from movin
g water.
 The waterwheel is a primitive for
m of a hydraulic turbine.
 Water turbines were developed in the
19th century and were widely used f
or industrial power prior to electrical
grids.
 Now they are mostly used for electri
c power generation.
 They harness a clean and renewable
energy source.

21
21
Hydraulic turbines:
Kaplan and Impulse
 Components of water turbine
 Water turbines are basically fairly simple systems.  T
hey consist of the following components:
 intake shaft  - a tube that connects to the piping or penstock which brings t
he water into the turbine
 water nozzle - a nozzle which shoots a jet of water (impulse type of turbine
s only)
 runner - a wheel which catches the water as it flows in causing the wheel t
o turn
 generator shaft - a steel shaft that connects the runner to the generator
 generator - a small electric generator that creates the electricity
 exit valve - a tube or shute that returns the water to the stream it came from
 powerhouse - a small shed or enclosure to protect the water turbine and ge
nerator from the elements

23
 Pump-turbines
 Turbines can also be designed to run in reve
rse as pumps.
 This is done by inverting the electric gener
ator to operate as a motor.
 Because electric power cannot be stored ec
onomically, the operation of the so-called p
ump-turbines with electricity generated fro
m nuclear and fossil fuel power plants durin
g off-peak hours enables additional water to
be stored in a reservoir.
 It can then be reused to drive the turbine du
ring peak periods.
 In recent years, pump-turbine technology h
as been developed to allow for heads up to
about 600 m (about 2000 ft) of water and fo
r unit capacities of more than 400 Mw.

24
24
 DERIAZ TURBINES

 Deriaz invented later the turbin

e that takes his name

 This turbine is reversible

 The price of the machinery is re

duced using the same machine li
ke pump and turbine.
 DERIAZ TURBINE’S ADVANTAGES

The Deriaz turbine is like Francis turbine but with

adjustable blades and has:

 Working like turbine, better yield than a Francis turbine w

ith analogous bun of stator blades
 Working like pump, better yield than a turbine-pump of st
ator blades
 Dynamic Machine
A.K.A. Turbomachines

 Radial-Flow :
- Also called Centrifugal.
- Radial flow path.
- Large change in radius from inlet to outlet
 Axial-Flow :
- Flow path nearly parallel to the axis of rotation.
-Radius of the flow path does not very significantly.
 Mixed-Flow:
- Flow path radius changes only moderately.
 Turbo machines that extract energy from the fluid stream

 Turbo machines that extract energ

y from the fluid stream are called
turbines.

 Turbines use Vanes, Blades, or Bu

ckets attached to the turbine shaft.

 This assembly is called the Rotor,

Wheel, or Runner/Impeller.
 Turbine Classifications
Hydraulic Turbines :
- The working fluid is WATER.
- Flow is incompressible.
 Gas and Steam Turbines :
- Density of the working fluid may change sig
nificantly.
 Further Classification

 Impulse Turbines:
- Driven by one or more high-speed free jets.
- Each jet is accelerated in an external nozzle.
-- Fluid acceleration and pressure drop is external to the blades.
 Reaction Turbines :
- Part of the pressure change takes place externally and part take
s place within the moving blades.
The turbine extracts energy from
the fluid stream and converts it
into mechanical energy, which is
then transmitted through a shaft to
some load.

The Steam Turbine Generator

Satsop Development Park

 TURBINES: Machines to extract fluid power
from flowing fluids

Steam Water Wind Gas

Turbine Turbines Turbines Turbines

• High Pressure, High Temperature gas

• Generated inside the engine Aircraft Engines
Power Generation
• Expands through a specially designed
TURBINE
Parts of a Wind Turbine
 Turbomachines that add energy to the fluid stream

 Pump :
 - when the fluid is a liquid or a slurry.
 -Very small to very large pressure rise.
 Rotating element is called an impeller.
 Fans, Blowers, or Compressors when handling a gas or a v
apor:
 Fans - generally have a small pressure rise (< 1 inch water)
 Blowers - moderate pressure rise (1 inch of mercury)
 Compressors - very high pressure rise (up to 150,000 psi)
 Classification of fluid machinery in sp
ecies and groups
Machine type → Combinations of
Machinery Engines
group ↓ power and machinery

Open turbomachine Propeller Wind turbines

Fluid couplings and
clutches
(hydrodynamic
Hydraulic fluid Centrifugal pumps
gearbox);
machinery turbopumps
Voith Turbo- Water turbines
(≈ incompressible and
Transmissions;
fluids) fans
pump-turbines
(in pumped-storage
hydroelectricity)

Thermal Gas turbines Steam turbines

turbomachinery Compressors (inlet of GT consists of ← turbine
(compressible fluid) a compressor) jet engines
 Hydraulic (Water) Turbines
 Basic working principle:
Hydraulic turbines convert the potential energy of water
into mechanical work.
 Three most popular hydraulic turbines are :
 Pelton wheel (Pelton turbine)
Kaplan turbine (Propeller turbine)
Francis turbine

36
 Design And Application
 The precise shape of hydraulic turbine blades is a dependant on the supply pres
sure of water, and the type of impeller selected.
 Following is a list of water turbines divided into two groups - reaction turbines
and impulse turbines.
 Reaction turbines:
-Francis
-Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, Tube, Straflo
-Tyson
-Water Wheel(overshot)
-Archimedean screw turbine
 Impulse turbines:
-Pelton
-Turgo
-Michell-Banki (also known as the Crossflow or Ossberger turbine)

37
37
 Hydraulic turbines
 Hydraulic turbines are used to convert the power of flowing water into usa
ble energy.
 The Kaplan turbine, designed by Viktor Kaplan in 1913, operates much lik
e a boat propeller.
 Broad, swiveling blades on the turbine are spun by high-pressure water as
it is released through a sluice, driving the axle of a generator.
 The Pelton turbine is a 19th-century model that operates more like a traditi
onal water wheel. Developed by Lester Allen Pelton, the wheel is designed
to revolve as water diverted from a reservoir through a penstock strikes its
curved buckets.
 A nozzle converts the kinetic energy of high-pressure water into a powerful
jet, and the buckets extract the momentum.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINES

Impulse Reaction

Pelton, Turgo Wheel,

Cross Flow Francis Axial Flow

Propeller, Semi Kaplan,

Kaplan

39
39
39
 Types of water turbines

Reaction turbines:
 Francis
 Kaplan, Propeller, Bulb, Tube, Straflo
 Tyson
 Gorlov
 Impulse turbine
 Waterwheel(undershot)
 Pelton
 Turgo
 Michell-Banki (also known as the Crossflow or Ossberger turbine)
 Jonval turbine
 Reverse overshot water-wheel
 Archimedes' screw turbine

41
 Classification of Hydro Turbines
 Reaction Turbines
– Derive power from pressure drop across turbine
– Totally immersed in water
– Angular & linear motion converted to shaft power
– Propeller, Francis, and Kaplan turbines
 Impulse Turbines
– Convert kinetic energy of water jet hitting buckets
– No pressure drop across turbines
– Pelton, Turgo, and crossflow turbines

42
42
 Reaction Turbines

 Reaction turbines are acted on by water, which changes pressu

re as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy.
 They must be encased to contain the water pressure (or suctio
n), or they must be fully submerged in the water flow.
 Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reactio
n turbines.
 Most water turbines in use are reaction turbines and are used i
n low (<30m/98 ft) and medium (30-300m/98–984 ft) head ap
plications.
 In reaction turbine pressure drop occurs in both fixed and mo
ving blades.
 Impulse Turbines
 Impulse turbines change the velocity of a water jet.
 The jet pushes on the turbine's curved blades which changes the direction o
f the flow.
 The resulting change in momentum (impulse) causes a force on the turbine
blades.
 An impulse turbine is one which the pressure of the fluid flowing over the
rotor blades is constant and all the work output is due to the change in kine
tic energy of the fluid.
 No pressure change occurs at the turbine blades, and the turbine doesn't req
uire a housing for operation.
 Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
 Impulse turbines are often used in very high (>300m/984 ft) head applicati
ons .
Water turbines
 Pelton and Turgo
Impulse – jet of water

4“
 Banki and Crossflow
Impulse – sheet of water
Crossflow

Banki
 Francis
Reaction Turbines
Submerged in the flow;
driven by the pressure differential

Kaplan

http://www.waterwheelfactory.com/francis.htm

http://www.toshiba.co.jp/f-ene/hydro/english/products/equipment/index01_2.htm
 Hydraulic turbines…
Difference between Kaplan turbine and Francis turbine:

S.No Kaplan turbine Francis turbine

1 Water enters the runner Water enters the runner vanes
vanes axially and leaves radially and leaves axially,
axially, hence it is called hence it is called a mixed
axial flow turbine. flow turbine.

2 The number of blades in the The number of blades in the

runner is generally between runner is generally between
3 and 8. 16 and 24.

49
49
49
 Hydraulic turbines…
Difference between Impulse and Reaction hydraulic turbines:
S.No. Impulse turbine Reaction turbine
e.g. Pelton turbine e.g. Kaplan & Francis turbines
1 In an impulse turbine all the In a reaction turbine, at the
available energy of water is entrance to the runner, only a
converted into kinetic energy part of the available energy of
as it passes through a nozzle. water is converted into
kinetic energy and a greater
part remains in the form of
pressure energy.
2 The water flowing through The water is guided by the
the nozzle impinges on the guide blades to flow over the
buckets which are fixed on runner vanes.
the outer periphery of the
wheel. 50
50
50
 Hydraulic Turbines
 Based on disposition of turbine main shaft
 a)  Horizontal shaft
 b)  Vertical shaft

  Based on flow through the runner

 a)  Radial flow
 1. Inward
 2.  Outward
 b)  Axial flow - Kaplan Turbine
 c)  Mixed flow - Francis Turbine
 d)  Tangential flow - Pelton Turbine
 Hydraulic head or piezometric head 
 Hydraulic head or piezometric head
 is a specific measurement of water pr
essure above a geodetic datum.
  It is usually measured as a water surf
ace elevation, expressed in units of le
ngth, at the entrance (or bottom) of a 
piezometer.
 In fluid dynamics, head is a concept t
hat relates the energy in an incompres
sible fluid to the height of an equivale
nt static column of that fluid.
 Head is expressed in units of height s
uch as meters or feet.

52
 Hydraulic Head of Turbines
 The are several basic types of turbines, each operates most effectively in a cert
ain pressure and flow range. 
 Many times the turbine types are characterized but their effective "head rang
e".
 The list below shows generally accepted values by turbine type

Turbine Type             Head(H) Range in Meters       Head(H) Range in Feet

Kaplan and Propeller         2 < H < 40                                6 < H < 125

Francis                           10 < H <350                              30 < H < 1200
Pelton                            50 < H < 1300                          150 < H < 5000
Banki - Michell                 3 < H < 250                               9 < H < 750
Turgo                             15 < H < 250                              50 < H < 750
 Applications of turbines according to head
 Turbine high medium head low head
head

impulse turbines Pelton cross-flow cross-flow

multi-jet Pelton
Turgo

reaction turbines   Francis propeller

Kaplan

54
55
55
 Types of Hydropower Turbines

Boyle, Renewable Energy, 2nd edition, Oxford University Press, 2003 56

56
 Turbine specific speed
 Turbines can be classified based on Specific Speed.
 Specific speed is defined as the speed in rpm of a geometrically similar turbine,
which is identical in shape, dimensions, blade angles and gate openings with th
e actual turbine working under unit head and developing unit power.
 Specific speed is used to compare the turbines and is denoted by Ns.

 Specific speed  Ns =  N √P / H5/4

 Impulse turbines have the lowest ns values, typically ranging from 1 to 1

0, a Pelton wheel is typically around 4, 
 Francis turbines fall in the range of 10 to 100,
 while Kaplan turbines are at least 100 or more, all in imperial units.
 Turbine specific speed

Expressed in English units, the "specific

speed" is defined as ns = n√(P)/h5/4
 where n is the wheel speed in rpm
 P is the power in horsepower
 h is the water head in feet
 Runaway speed 
 The runaway speed of a water turbine is its sp
eed at full flow, and no shaft load.
 The turbine will be designed to survive the me
chanical forces of this speed.
 The manufacturer will supply the runaway spee
d rating.
59
 Affinity Laws
 The affinity laws are used in hydraulics and HVAC t
o express the relationship between variables involved
in pump or fan performance (such as head, volumetri
c flow rate, shaft speed) and power.
 They apply to pumps, fans, and hydraulic turbines.
 In these rotary implements, the affinity laws apply bo
th to centrifugal and axial flows.
Law 1. With impeller diameter (D) held constant
 Law 1a. Flow is proportional to shaft speed: 

 Law 1b. Pressure or Head is proportional to th

e square of shaft speed:

 Law 1c. Power is proportional to the cube of s

haft speed:

61
61
 Law 2. With shaft speed (N) held constant
 Law 2a. Flow is proportional to the cube of the impeller diameter:

 Law 2b. Pressure or Head is proportional to the square of impeller diameter:

 Law 2c. Power is proportional to the fifth power of impeller diameter:

 Where:
-Q is the volumetric flow rate (e.g. CFM, GPM or L/s),
-D is the impeller diameter (e.g. in or mm),
-N is the shaft rotational speed (e.g. rpm),
-H is the pressure or head developed by the fan/pump (e.g. ft or m), and
-P is the shaft power (e.g. W).

62
62
 Water hammering 
 Water hammer (or, more generally, fluid ha
mmer) is a pressure surge or wave resulting w
hen a fluid (usually a liquid but sometimes als
o a gas) in motion is forced to stop or change
direction suddenly (momentum change).
 Water hammer commonly occurs when a valv
e is closed suddenly at an end of a pipeline sy
stem, and a pressure wave propagates in the pi
pe. It may also be known as hydraulic shock.
 This pressure wave can cause major problems,
from noise and vibration to pipe collapse.
 It is possible to reduce the effects of the water
hammer pulses with accumulators and other f
eatures.

63
63
 Types of Systems
 Impoundment-storage dam
– Hoover Dam, Grand Coulee,Tarbela dam etc
 Diversion or run-of-river systems
– Niagara Falls,GBHP,Chief Joseph
– Most significantly smaller
 Pumped Storage
– Two way flow
– Pumped up to a storage reservoir and returned to a lower el
evation for power generation
• A mechanism for energy storage, not net energy production
 Types of Systems
 According to availability of water:-
a) Run of river plant without pondage
b) Run-off river plant with pondage
c) Storage plant
d) Pump storage plant
 According to head :-
a) Low head plant
b) Medium head plant
c) High head plant
 According to load :-
a) Base load plant
b) Peak load plant
Three Gorges Dam

66
 Largest hydroelectric power station
Capacity
Rank Station Country Location
(MW)
30°49′15″N 11
1 Three Gorges Dam  China 22,500
1°00′08″E

 Brazil 25°24′31″S 54
2 Itaipu Dam 14,000
 Paraguay °35′21″W

07°45′59″N 6
3 Guri Dam  Venezuela 10,200
2°59′57″W

03°49′53″S 49
4 Tucurui Dam  Brazil 8,370
°38′36″W

47°57′23″N 11
5 Grand Coulee Dam  United States 6,809
8°58′56″W
Run-of-River
 Largest Run-of-river
Capacity
Rank Station Country Location
(MW)
47°59′43″N 119°
1 Chief Joseph Dam  United States 2,620
38′00″W
45°52′49″N 120°
2 John Day Dam  United States 2,160
41′40″W
Beauharnois
45°18′50″N 73°5
3 Hydroelectric Power  Canada 1,903
4′32″W
Station
45°36′44″N 121°
4 The Dalles Dam  United States 1,779
08′04″W
31°33′50″N 77°5
5 Nathpa Jhakri Dam  India 1,500
8′49″E
Chief Joseph, the largest run-of-the-river hydroe
lectric power station at 2,620 MW.
 Kazunogawa Hydroelectric Power Plant, Japa
n
 Order year 1995

 Output 1,600MW
 Plant type Pumped storage

 Location Kazunogawa, Japan

 Estimated investment $2.2 b

illion
 Completion 2001

 Sponsor Tokyo Electric Pow

er

72
72
 Pumped-storage
Capacity
Rank Station Country Location
(MW)
Bath County Pumped 38°12′32″N 79°4
1  United States 3,003
Storage Station 8′00″W

Huizhou Pumped 23°16′07″N 114°

2  China 2,448
Storage Power Station 18′50″E

Guangdong Pumped 23°45′52″N 113°

3  China 2,400
Storage Power Station 57′12″E

Okutataragi
35°14′13″N 134°
4 Hydroelectric Power  Japan 1,932
49′55″E
Station
Ludington Pumped 43°53′37″N 86°2
5  United States 1,872
Storage Power Plant 6′43″W
 Water wheel
 The oldest and simplest form of the hydrau
lic turbine was the waterwheel, first used i
n ancient Greece and subsequently adopte
d in most of ancient and medieval Europe f
or grinding grain.
 It consisted of a vertical shaft with a set of
radial vanes or paddles positioned in a swi
ftly flowing stream or millrace. Its power o
utput was about 0.5 horsepower.
 The horizontal-shaft waterwheel (that is, a
horizontal shaft connected to a vertical pad
dle wheel), first described by the Roman ar
chitect and engineer Marcus Vitruvius Poll
io during the 1st century BC, had the lowe
r segment of the paddle wheel inserted into
the stream,
 thus acting as a so-called undershot water
wheel.

74
74
 Three general types of waterwheels
 Waterwheel, simple mechanical device used to convert water power into ro
tary motion.
 A waterwheel works on the principle that when water undergoes a controll
ed change in elevation, the falling water is a source of power and will turn
the axle of the waterwheel.
 The three general types of waterwheels, which are sometimes called: gr
avity wheels, are the

 undershot,
 overshot,
 breast shot wheel.
75
75
 Undershot water wheel
 UNDERSHOT: driv
en by water passing
beneath: used to des
cribe a device, especi
ally a waterwheel, th
at is driven by water
flowing beneath it

76
76
 Overshot water wheel
 OVERSHOT: drive
n by water on upper
surface: used to desc
ribe a water wheel dr
iven by water flowin
g onto it from above

77
77
78
78
 Backshot wheel
 A backshot wheel (also call
ed pitchback) is a variety of
overshot wheel where the w
ater is introduced just behin
d the summit of the wheel.
 It combines the advantages
from breastshot and oversh
ot systems, since the full a
mount of the potential ener
gy released by the falling w
ater is harnessed as the wat
er descends the back of the
wheel.

79
79
 Breastshot water wheel
 A vertically-mounted w
ater wheel that is rotated
by falling water striking
buckets near the center
of the wheel's edge, or j
ust above it, is said to be
breastshot.
 and are said to have po
wered the American ind
ustrial revolution

80
80
81
81
 Efficiencies of waterwheels
 The best modern overshot waterwheels attain e
fficiencies of 85 percent or greater,
 Breastshot wheels about 75 percent, and
 undershot wheels about 35 percent.

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82
 Transition from waterwheel to turbine
 The transition from waterwheel to turbine is largely semantic.
 The first important attempt to formulate a theoretical basis for waterwheel design
was in the 18th century by the British civil engineer John Smeaton, who proved tha
t the overshot wheel was more efficient.
 The French military engineer Jean Victor Poncelet, however, devised an undershot
wheel, the curved blades of which raised efficiency to nearly 70 percent; it quickly
came into wide use.
 Another French military engineer, Claude Burdin, invented the term turbine, i
ntroduced as part of a theoretical discussion in which he stressed speed of rotat
ion.
 Benoit Fourneyron, who studied under Burdin at the School of Mines at St. Étienn
e, designed and built wheels that achieved speeds of 60 or more rpm (revolutions p
er minute) and provided up to 50 horsepower for French ironworks.
 Ultimately Fourneyron built turbines that operated at 2300 rpm, developing 60 hor
sepower at an efficiency of more than 80 percent.

83
 Timeline of water turbine
 The earliest known water turbines date to the Roman Empire.
 Two helix-turbine mill sites of almost identical design were found at Chem
tou and Testour, modern-day Tunisia, dating to the late 3rd or early 4th cen
tury AD.
 Ján Andrej Segner developed a reactive water turbine in the mid-18th centu
ry.
 In 1820, Jean-Victor Poncelet developed an inward-flow turbine.
 In 1826, Benoit Fourneyron developed an outward-flow turbine. This was
an efficient machine (~80%) that sent water through a runner with blades c
urved in one dimension. The stationary outlet also had curved guides.
 In 1844, Uriah A. Boyden developed an outward flow turbine that improve
d on the performance of the Fourneyron turbine. Its runner shape was simil
ar to that of a Francis turbine.

84
84
 Timeline of water turbine
 In 1849, James B. Francis improved the inward flow reaction turbine to over 90% e
fficiency.
 The Francis turbine, named for him, is the first modern water turbine.
 It is still the most widely used water turbine in the world today.
 The Francis turbine is also called a radial flow turbine, since water flows from the o
uter circumference towards the centre of runner.
 Inward flow water turbines have a better mechanical arrangement and all modern re
action water turbines are of this design.
 As the water swirls inward, it accelerates, and transfers energy to the runner.
 Water pressure decreases to atmospheric, or in some cases subatmospheric, as the w
ater passes through the turbine blades and loses energy.
 Around 1913, Viktor Kaplan created the Kaplan turbine, a propeller-type machine.
It was an evolution of the Francis turbine but revolutionized the ability to develop l
ow-head hydro sites.
 Francis turbine
 The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by Jame
s B. Francis in Lowell, Massachusetts.
 It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial flow co
ncepts.
 Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today.
 They operate in a head range of ten meters to six hundred and fifty meters
and are primarily used for electrical power production.
 The power output ranges from 10 to 750MW, mini-hydro excluded.
 Runner diameters are between 1 and 10 meters.
 The speed range of the turbine is from 80 to 1000 rpm.
 Medium size and larger Francis turbines are most often arranged with a ve
rtical shaft.
 Vertical shaft may also be used for small size turbines, but normally they h
ave horizontal shaft.
86
Parts of Francis turbine
A view of Francis Turbine
Guide vanes in Francis turbines

90
90
Runner: Francis turbine

91
91
A Francis turbine runner, rated at nearly one million hp (750
MW), being installed at the Grand Coulee Dam, United States.
 Draft Tube
 Draft tubes and diffuser tubes
In reaction turbines, to reduce the kinetic energy still
remaining in the water leaving the runner a draft tube
or diffuser stands between the turbine and the tail rac
e.
 A well-designed draft tube allows, within certain limi
ts, the turbine to be installed above the tailwater eleva
tion without losing any head.
 As the kinetic energy is proportional to the square of
the velocity one of the draft tube objectives is to redu
ce the outlet velocity.
Draft Tube
 Francis turbine

 It is named after James B.

Francis (1815 – 1892) an
English born inventor who
developed the turbine in the
year 1849.
 It is used when the head is
between 80 to 500 metres. i.e.
it is a medium head turbine.
 It is a mixed flow reaction
turbine.

95
95
95
 Francis turbine…
 A Francis turbine rotates in a closed
casing.
 Its wheel has many curved blades c
alled runner vanes as many as 24.
 Its shaft is vertical. The wheel of a
Francis turbine operates under wate
r.
 The guide vanes and stay vanes con
trol the amount of water flowing int
o the runner vanes.
 The runner is rotated mainly due to
the weight or pressure of the flowin
g water.

96
96
96
Francis turbines
Traditional runner X blade runner
 Losses in Francis Turbines

Draft tube
Hydraulic Efficiency [%]

Output Energy

Head [m]
Hydraulic Efficiency [%]
Losses in Francis Turbines

Output Energy

Output [%]
 Impulse Turbines
 Uses the velocity of the water to
move the runner and discharges to
atmospheric pressure.
 The water stream hits each bucket
on the runner.
 No suction downside, water flows
out through turbine housing after
hitting.
 High head, low flow applications.
 Types : Pelton wheel, Cross Flow
 Pelton Wheel (Pelton turbine)

This turbine is named after Leste

r A. Pelton (1829 – 1908) an Am
erican
 Engineer who developed it in the
year 1880.
 Pelton wheel is a high head turbi
ne. It is used with heads of more
than 500 metres.
A head is the distance the water
falls before it strikes the turbine
blades.
103
103
103
 Pelton Wheel Turbine

Design of Pelton Wheel Turbine

 It has a circular disk with cup shaped blades/buckets,

 Water jet emerging from a nozzle is tangential to the circumference o
f the wheel.
HEPP with Pelton Wheel
 Parts of Advanced Pelton Turbine

 The main components of a Pelton turbine are:

 (i) water distributor and casing,
 (ii) nozzle and deflector with their operating mechanism,
 (iii) runner with buckets,
 (iv) shaft with bearing,
 (v) auxiliary nozzle.
 Auxiliary nozzle is used as brake for reducing the speed durin
g shut down.
 The runner is located above maximum tail water to permit ope
ration at atmospheric pressure.
Working Principle of Pelton Turbine

 Water jets emerging strike the buckets at splitter.

 Stream flow along the inner curve of the bucket and leave it in the di
rection opposite to that of incoming jet.
 The high pressure water can be obtained from any water body situat
ed at some height or streams of water flowing down the hills.
 The change in momentum (direction as well as speed) of water strea
m produces an impulse on the blades of the wheel of Pelton Turbine.
 This impulse generates the torque and rotation in the shaft of Pelton
Turbine.
 Horizontal shaft - Not more than 2 jets are used and
 Vertical shaft - Larger no. of jets (upto 6) are used.
 Iron/Steel casing to prevent splashing of water and to lead water to t
he tail race.
 Pelton Wheel (Pelton turbine)…
 The flow of water is tangential t
o the runner. So it is a tangential
flow impulse turbine.
 A Pelton’s runner consists of a s
ingle wheel mounted on a horiz
ontal shaft.
 Water falls towards the turbine t
hrough a pipe called penstock a
nd flows through a nozzle.
 The high speed jet of water hits
the buckets (vanes) on the whee
l and causes the wheel to rotate.
 A spear rod which has a spear s
haped end can be moved by a h
and wheel.
 This movement controls the flow o
f water leaving the nozzle, before it
strikes the bucket (vane)

108
108
108
Vertical shaft multi jet pelton turbine
 Impulse Turbines-Pelton Turbine
Pelton turbines are impulse turbines where one or more jets impinge on a whe
el carrying on its periphery a large number of buckets.
 Each jet issues through a nozzle with a needle (or spear) valve to control t
he flow.
 They are only used for relatively high heads.
 The axes of the nozzles are in the plane of the runner.
 To stop the turbine - e.g. when the turbine approaches the runaway speed
due to load rejection- the jet may be deflected by a plate so that it does not
impinge on the buckets.
 In this way the needle valve can be closed very slowly, so that overpressur
e surge in the pipeline is kept to an acceptable minimum.
 Any kinetic energy leaving the runner is lost and so the buckets are designe
d to keep exit velocities to a minimum.
 The turbine casing only needs to protect the surroundings against water spl
ashing and therefore can be very light.
Pelton Wheel (Pelton turbine)…

111
111
111
 KAPLAN TURBINES

 The turbines that take his name have revolutionized in thes

e years the use of jumps of little height.

 The Kaplan turbines are water reaction turbines of axial fl

ow, with a bun that works in similar way to the helix of a b
oat.

 The Kaplan turbine is a helix turbine in which the blades o

f the bun turn itself when it is on, adjusting automatically a
ccording the work to the conditions of optimal yield.
Cross-sectional view of Kaplan Turbine
A propeller-type runner rated 28,000 hp (21 MW)
 Kaplan turbine (Propeller turbine)

 Kaplan turbine is a type of prop

eller turbine which was develop
ed during 1900’s by the Austrian
engineer Victor Kaplan (1876 –
1934)
 Kaplan turbine is a low head tur
bine and used for heads of less t
han 80 metres.
 The runner of a kaplan turbine r
esembles with propeller of a shi
p.
 That is why, a Kaplan turbine is
also called as propeller turbine.
115
115
115
 Kaplan and propeller turbines
 Kaplan and propeller turbines are axi
al-flow reaction turbines, generally us
ed for low heads.
 Large Kaplan turbines have adjustabl
e runner blades and may or may not h
ave adjustable guide- vanes.
 If both blades and guide-vanes are ad
justable it is described as "double-reg
ulated".
 If the guide-vanes are fixed it is "sing
le-regulated".

Unregulated propeller turbines are us
ed when both flow and head remain p
ractically constant, and are most com
mon in micro-hydro applications. 
 Kaplan turbine Vertical Kaplan Turbine Setup

 The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type wa

ter turbine which has adjustable blades.
 The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of th
e Francis turbine.
 Its invention allowed efficient power prod
uction in low-head applications that was n
ot possible with Francis turbines.
 The head ranges from 10-70 meters and th
e output from 5 to 120 MW.
 Runner diameters are between 2 and 8 met
ers.
 The range of the turbine is from 79 to 429
rpm.
 Kaplan turbines are now widely used thro
ughout the world in high-flow, low-head p
ower production.

Horizontal
Kaplan Turbine
117
 Variations of Kaplan Turbines
The Kaplan turbine is the most widely used of the propeller-type turbines, but se
veral other variations exist:
 Propeller turbines have non-adjustable propeller vanes.
 They are used in where the range of head is not large.
 Commercial products exist for producing several hundred watts from only a few feet of head.
 Larger propeller turbines produce more than 100 MW.
 At the La Grande-1 generating station in northern Quebec, 12 propeller turbines generate 1368 M
W.
 Bulb or Tubular turbines are designed into the water delivery tube.
 A large bulb is centered in the water pipe which holds the generator, wicket gate and runner.
 Tubular turbines are a fully axial design, whereas Kaplan turbines have a radial wicket gate.
 Pit turbines are bulb turbines with a gear box. This allows for a smaller genera
tor and bulb.

118
118
 Variations of Kaplan Turbines
 Straflo turbines are axial turbines with the generator outside of the water
channel, connected to the periphery of the runner.
 S- turbines eliminate the need for a bulb housing by placing the generator
outside of the water channel. This is accomplished with a jog in the water c
hannel and a shaft connecting the runner and generator.
 VLH turbine an open flow, very low head "kaplan" turbine slanted at an a
ngle to the water flow. It has a large diameter, is low speed using a perman
ent magnet alternator with electronic power regulation and is very fish frie
ndly (<5% mortality). 
 Tyson turbines are a fixed propeller turbine designed to be immersed in a
fast flowing river, either permanently anchored in the river bed, or attached
to a boat or barge
 Turgo Turbine-Impulse turbine
 The Turgo turbine can operate under a head
in the range of 30-300 meters.
 Like the Pelton it is an impulse turbine, but
its buckets are shaped differently and the jet
of water strikes the plane of its runner at an
angle of 20°.
 Water enters the runner through one side of t
he runner disk and emerges from the other.
 Whereas the volume of water a Pelton turbi
ne can admit is limited because the water lea
ving each bucket interferes with the adjacent
ones, the Turgo runner does not present this
problem.
 The resulting higher runner speed of the Tur
go makes direct coupling of turbine and gen
erator more likely, improving its overall effi
ciency and decreasing maintenance cost.
 Cross Flow Turbines
 drum-shaped
 elongated, rectangular-section nozzl
e directed against curved vanes on a
cylindrically shaped runner
 “squirrel cage” blower
 water flows through the blades tw
ice
 First pass : water flows from the ou
tside of the blades to the inside
 Second pass : from the inside back
out
 Larger water flows and lower heads
than the Pelton.
 Cross-flow turbines
 This impulse turbine, also known as Banki-Michell in rememb
rance of its inventors and Ossberger after a company which ha
s been making it for more than 50 years is used for a wide ran
ge of heads overlapping those of Kaplan, Francis and Pelton.
 It can operate with discharges between 20 litres/sec and 10 cu
bic meters per second and heads between 1 and 200 meters.
 Water enters the turbine, directed by one or more guide-vanes
located in a transition piece upstream of the runner, and throug
h the first stage of the runner, which runs full with a small deg
ree of reaction.
 Flow leaving the first stage attempt to crosses the open center
of the turbine.
 As the flow enters the second stage, a compromise direction i
s achieved which causes significant shock losses.
 The runner is built from two or more parallel disks connected
near their rims by a series of curved blades.
 Their efficiency is lower than conventional turbines, but rema
ins the same level for a wide range of flows and heads.
 Cross-flow turbines
 Especially for small hydro-power plants, b
ut also for low and medium heads the cros
s-flow wheel can be used.
 This kind of turbine is suitable for small di
scharges of 0.025 m3/s to 13 m3/s and avai
lable heads of between 1 m and 200 m.
 The efficiency of the cross-flow turbine is
around 85% and a power up to 1.5 MW ca
n be generated.
 The specific speed is in the range between
2 and 70 rev/min.
 The cross-flow turbine can be considered a
s turbine type between the impulse wheels
and the reaction wheels.
 In the gap between guide vane and the whe
el there is atmospheric pressure with a free
jet, however in the filled elements of the w
heel there is a small pressure.
 Tyson Turbine
 The Tyson Turbine is a hydropower system that extracts powe
r from the flow of water.
 This design doesn't need a casement, as it is inserted directly i
nto flowing water.
 It consists of a propeller mounted below a raft, driving a powe
r system, typically a generator, on top of the raft by belt or gea
r.
 The turbine is towed into the middle of a river or stream, wher
e the flow is the fastest, and tied off to shore.
 It requires no local engineering, and can easily be moved to ot
her locations.
125