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 2.1 Introduction

‡ Material
± Crystalline
A material is made up of a number of small units called
crystals or grains.
± Noncrystalline
‡ Assumption in this text
± Homogeneous
± Isotropic

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 ‡ Commonly used engineering materials

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Ñ
 2.2 Material Property Definitions
‡ Material
± Isotropic
± Orthotropic
± Anisotropic

‡ Material
± Ductile material
mild steel, nickel, brass, copper, magnesium, ----
± Brittle material
concrete, stone, cast iron, glass, ---

‡ Mechanical properties of material

± What are the mechanical properties?
± How to get the mechanical properties?

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è
 ‡ Îhe factor considered in the selection of a material in design
± Functional
‡ Strength
‡ Stiffness
‡ Durability
‡ Machinability
‡ Workability
‡ Malleability
‡ Hardness
± Economic
‡ Initial cost
‡ Maintenance cost
‡ Replacement cost

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 2.3 Static Strength
‡ Îension test
± A specimen subjected to tensile loading, applied slowly or
statically at room temperature.
± Îo provide basic information about overall response of
specimens to the applied loads.
± Îo obtain a stress-strain diagram.

‡ Stress-strain diagram
± Îhe stress is found by dividing the force by the cross-
sectional area, and the strain is found by dividing the
elongation by the gage length.
± Îhe stress-strain diagram differ widely for different materials.

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A
 ‡ Stress-Strain Diagrams for Ductile Materials
± Conventional or engineering stress-strain diagram (OABCDE)
± Îrue stress-strain diagram (OABCF)

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†
 ‡ âield Strength
± Elastic range ([ )
± Proportional limit (ü )
± âield point (yield strength) (ü
)
± Perfectly plastic (· )

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Ë
 ‡ Strain Hardening (Cold working)
± Range

± An increase in stress is required for a continued increase in
strain

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]
 ‡ nloading at point ` in region

± Retain to the point a along line `a, and line `a // line [
± Permanent set ([a)

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Ô 
 ‡ Reloading at point a
± Stress-strain curve (a`
)
± New yield point (`)
± Îhe ductility is reduced after unloading and then reloading
process

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ÔÔ
 ‡ ltimate Îensile Strength (ü)
‡ Fracture Strength (ü)
‡ Necking (
)
‡ Strain(OA) << Strain(BC)

ü

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Ô
 ‡ Definition of ductility of a material

ë ë
Percent elongation= (100)
ë

 
Percent reduction in area= (100)

Where
ë : Original cross-sectional area and gage length of the specimen
 ë: Final cross-sectional area and gage length of the specimen

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ÔÑ
 ‡ Offset âield Strength

± 0.2% offset method

Determine the yield
strength for certain
materials which don¶t
show a distinctive yield
point.

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Ôè
 ‡ Stress-Strain Diagram for Brittle Materials
± No well-defined linear region.
± No difference between the ultimate strength and the fracture
strength.
± Îhe strain at the rupture is much smaller.
± Rupture occurs with no noticeable prior change in the rate of
elongation.
± Îhe fracture is associated with the tensile stresses.

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 ‡ Stress-Strain Diagrams in Compression
± For most ductile materials, the yield strength is about the
same in tension and compression (Even material).
± For brittle material, the stresses in compression are much
greater than in tension (neven material).

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ÔA
 2.4 Hooke¶s Law and Modulus of Elasticity
‡ Hooke¶s Law ( the stress-strain relation)

 = á
where  : elastic modulus or âoung¶s modulus
± Îhe law is valid only up to the proportional limit of the
material.
± Îhe  is the slope of the stress-strain curve in the linearly
elastic range.
± Îhe E represents the stiffness of material in tension or
compression.
± Îangent modulus Et = d /dá
Secant modulus Es =  /á

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Ԇ
 ‡ Hooke¶s Law for shear stress and shear strain

ð = ù
where ù : shear modulus of elasticity

‡ Poisson¶s ratio
lateral strain
* =-
axial strain
± 'alid only for a uniaxial state of stress
± Îhe lateral strain is of sense opposite to that of the axial
strain.
± For most materials, * M



± For most materials, * 6


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ÔË
 2.5 Generalized Hooke¶s Law
‡ For a two-dimensional state of stress

 
á

* 


á
*á ´
 
*
  
á
*


á *á
´
 
*
ð



ð







*

 
á *
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Ô]
 ‡ For a three-dimensional state of stress

ð

á


*   U ´ 


 ù

ð U
á  * 
  U ´  U



ð
U
á U
 U * 
 ´ 
U

 

‡ Îhe relation of , ù and *




* ´
± For an isotropic materials, they are only two independent
elastic constants.

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 ‡ Dilatation


 á
á áU
m
Where ' : the change in volume
' : original volume
±  represents the unit change in volume
± Îhe shear strains cause no change in volume.
± For incompressible materials, =0.

‡ Bulk modulus of elasticity




U





* ´
±  represents the modulus of volumetric expansion

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Ô
 ‡ Îhe stress-strain relationships may be expressed as


á
 ÿ ð

ù

 á  ÿ ð U  U

 U
á U  ÿ ð
U ù
U

D 

*

á
á áU

 U´


*
ÿ


* ´
* ´

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 Ex. 2.1
‡ A steel panel of a device is approximated by a plate of
thickness
, width , length , subjected to stress x and y
Calculate:
± Îhe value of £ for which length Y remains unchanged
± Îhe final thickness
 and 
± Îhe normal strain for the diagonal
Given:
M M 
M
M ù *M

M |
Assumptions:

Îhe plate is in plane state of stress

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Ñ
 Solution:
1. length remains unchanged : á£M
2. plane state of stress : UM 


á


* ´
m 

*



á
 *
´

*
áU

 ´

(a)
£ 
Ñ oÔ A AA

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è
 (b)

m 

á
m m ´

mm
R á
 *
´
mm
m ´ 
m *
áU ƒ 
  m´ ƒè R áU

 ´
mm
m ´ 
p p
áU A
]]]A 
]]Ë
u u
á0 Ñ Ô
Ô Ñ
Ñ

(c)
@ Ñ è    
@ Ñ
Ñè   
ÔË

á@ 
ÔË  ÑA R

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 2.6 Îhermal Stress-Strain Relations
‡ For a two-dimensional state of stress

 Î
á


* ´ Î 


á
*á ´

*
*

 Î
á
 ƒ*
´  Î  á  *á
´ ƒ

ƒ* 
ƒ*
ð


ð

ù


 
 



    
£



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A
 ‡ Îhermal stress-strain relation
± Because free thermal expansion causes no distortion in an
isotropic material, the shear strain is uneffected.
(
 )
± In statically determinate structures, a uniform temperature
change will not cause any stresses, as thermal deformations
are permitted to occur freely.
(8

 )
± A temperature change in a structure supported in a statically
indeterminate manner induces stresses in the members.
(8

 )

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†
 2.7 Îemperature and Stress-Strain Properties
‡ Short-Îime Effects of Elevated and Low Îemperatures
± Îhe ultimate strength, yield strength and modulus of
elasticity are lowered with increasing temperature.
± At low temperature, there is an increase in ultimate strength,
yield strength, modulus of elasticity, and hardness and a
decrease in ductility for metal.

Ñ è


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Ë
 ‡ Long-Îime Effects of Elevated Îemperatures : Creep
± Creep : most metals under a constant load at elevated
temperatures over a long period develop additional strain.
± Creep is time dependent because deformation increases with
time until a rupture occurs.
± Creep deformation must be maintained small.
± For some applications and within certain temperatures,
stress, and time limits, creep effects need not be considered.

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 ‡ Creep curve for structural steel
± 1st region: the material is becoming stronger because of
strain hardening, and creep rate decreases continuously.
± 2nd region: strain rate remains constant because of the
balancing effects of strain hardening and annealing .
± 3rd region: the annealing effect predominates, and the
deformation occurs at an accelerated creep rate until a
rupture results.

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Ñ 
 2.8 Moduli of Resilience and Îoughness
‡ Modulus of Resilience()
± Resilience: the capacity of a material to absorb energy within
the elastic range.
± Modulus of resilience (Strain energy density): the energy
absorbed per unit volume of material. Îhe area under the
straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram




where : Modulus of resilience; ü
: yield strength
: Modulus of elasticity

 

á á
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 ‡ Modulus of Îoughness(c )
± Îoughness: the capacity of a material to absorb energy
without fracture.
± Modulus of toughness: the energy absorbed per unit volume
of material up to the point of fracture. Îhe area under the
stress-strain diagram
á^

 ‘
m
 á
where 
: Modulus of toughness; á: strain at fracture

 

á á

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 ± Îoughness of a material is related to its ductility as well as to
its ultimate strength.
± Îhe modulus of toughness is approximated by

 ë

 á^

this equation is O
suitable for brittle material.
± For brittle material, the modulus of toughness is
approximated by



ë áë

where ü: ltimate strength; á: strain at the ultimate strength
± Fracture toughness: the ability of a material to resist at the
tip of a crack.

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ÑÑ
 Ex. 2.2
‡ A prismatic round steel rod must acquire an elastic strain
energy of  = 200 in.¿lb. Determine the required yield
strength ü
for a factor of safety of O=2.5 with respect to
permanent deformation
Given:
M oÔ
 MO
ëM 

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 Solution:
1. Îhe volume of the member


  
´  è o
´   
è
2. Strain energy
=O =2.5(200)=500 in.¿lb
3. Strain energy density
r=/'=500/28.9=17.3 lb/in3
4.
 





  m 
m  ´

ü
= 32.2 ksi

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Ñ
 2.9 Dynamic and Îhermal Effects: Brittle-Ductile
Îransition
‡ Îransition temperature (Ît): the temperature at a material¶s
behavior changes from ductile to brittle.
± Failure occurs by fracture at Î < Ît
± At temperature close to Ît, the material generally exhibits
some yielding prior to a partially brittle fracture.
‡ Îhe transition temperature is defined as the temperature at
which there is a sudden decrease in impact toughness.

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ÑA
 ‡ Impact load (Shock load): the time of application on the
structure is less than one-third of the lowest natural period
of the structure.
‡ Îhe principle factors governing whether failure occurs by
fracture or yielding
± Îemperature: If the temperature increase ( Î > Ît), the
specimen yields. If the temperature decreases ( Î < Ît), the
specimen fractures without yielding.
± Load rate: Increasing the rate at which the load is applied
increases a metal¶s ability to resist yielding.
± Îriaxiality: Îhe effect on the transition of a three-dimensional
stress condition around the notch is similar to that of loading
rate.
± Fatigue
± Creep
± Severe quenching in heat treatment

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ц
 2.10 Hardness

‡ Hardness: the ability of a material to resist indentation and

scratching.
± Hardness testing is one of the principle methods for
ascertaining the suitability of a material for its intended
purpose. It is also a valuable inspection tool for maintaining
uniformity of quality in heat-treated parts.
± Indentation hardness tests: Brinell, Rockwell, or 'ickers.
‡ Brinell Hardness
± Îhe test uses a spherical ball in contact with a flat specimen
of the material and subjected to a selected compressive load.
Îhe diameter of the indentation is measured with an optical
micrometer.
± Brinell hardness number (Bhn) HB: Îhe applied load divided
by the area of the surface of indentation. Îhe harder is the
material, the higher the Brinell number.

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ÑË
 ‡ Rockwell Hardness
± Îhe test uses a indenter (steel ball or diamond cone) pressed
into the material. Îhe thickness should be at least 10 times
the indentation diameter.
± Rockwell hardness number RB; RC: Îhe relationships of the
total test force to the depth of indentation.
± RB scales used for soft metals. RC scales used for hard metals.
‡ 'ickers Hardness
± Îhe test is similar to the Brinell test. It uses a four-sided
inverted diamond pyramid with an apex angle of 1360.
± 'ickers hardness number H': Îhe ratio of the impressed load
to the square indented area.
‡ Shore Scleroscope
± Îhe test uses a small diamond-tipped pointer or hammer that
is allowed to fall from a fixed height onto the specimen.
± Hardness is measured by the height of rebound.

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 ‡ Relationships among Hardness and ltimate strength of steel
± For most steels
Su = 500HB psi
± For stress-relieved steels
Sy = 1.05Su - 30000 psi
Sy = 525HB -30000 psi

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è 
 2.11 Processes to Improve Hardness and the
Strength of Metals

‡ Îhe way to increase the hardness and strength of metals

± Suitably varying the composition or alloying
± Mechanical treatment
± Heat treatment

‡ Mechanical Îreatment
± Hot-working processes
± Cold-working processes
‡ Recrystallization temperature: the temperature what the metal
can be shaped and formed
± Hot-working processes: above its recrystallization temperature
± Cold-working processes: below its recrystallization temperature

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èÔ
 ‡ Cold working (Strain Harding)
± An increase in hardness and yield strength, with a loss in
toughness and ductility.
± Cold-working operations include cold rolling, drawing, turning,
grinding, and polishing.
± Shot peening: the surface is bombarded with high-velocity iron
or steel shot discharged from a rotating wheel or pneumatic
nozzle.

‡ Hot working
± It reduces the strain hardening of a material but avoids the
ductility and toughness loss.
± Hot-rolled metal tend to have greater ductility, low strength, and
a poorer surface finish than cold-worked metals.
± Hold-working processes include rolling, forging, hot extrusion,
and hot pressing.

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è
 ‡ Heat Îreatment
± Quenching: Îhe rapid cooling of a metal from an elevated
temperature by injecting or spraying the metal with a suitable
cooling medium, such as oil or water, to increase harness.
± Îempering or Drawing: A process of stress relieving and
softening by heating then quenching.
± Annealing: A process involving heating and slowly cooling,
applied usually to induce softening and ductility.

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èÑ
 ± Normalizing: A process that includes annealing, except that
the material is heated to a slightly higher temperature than
annealing.
± Case hardening or Carburizing: A process where the surface
layer is made substantially harder than the metal¶s interior
core.
± Îhrough hardening: With a sufficiently high carbon content,
the material is quenched and drawn at suitable temperatures
to obtain the desired physical properties.

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èè
 2.12 General Properties of Metals

‡ Iron and Steel

± Iron, in its pure form, has almost no commercial use.
± Îhe addition of other elements to iron essentially changes its
characteristics, resulting in a variety of a cast and wrought
irons and steel.
‡ Cast Irons
± An iron alloy containing over 2% carbon.
± Brittle, and cannot be cold worked.
± Inexpensive, easily cast, and readily machined.
± Superior vibration characteristics and resistance to wear.

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è
 ‡ Steels
± An alloy of carbon containing less than 2% of carbon.
± Plain Carbon steels:
‡ Contain only carbon (less than 1%)
‡ Desired characteristics can be gained by heat treatment
‡ Îhe least expensive steel
‡ Low-carbon, Medium and High-carbon steel

Îype Carbon content Area of use

Low-carbon 0.03 % ~ 0.25 % Plate, sheet
Medium 0.3 % ~ 0.55 % Machine parts
High-carbon steel 0.6 % ~ 1.4 % Spring, tools

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èA
 ± Alloy steels:
‡ Hardness and strength can be controlled by the carbon content
‡ Alloying elements include manganese, molybdenum, chromium,
vanadium, and nickel.
± Stainless Steels:
‡ Elements contain at least 12% chromium.
‡ Corrosion resistance and heat-resisting applications
‡ Îhree types ± Austenitic (18% chromium, 8% nickel);
Ferritic (17% chromium)
Martensitic (12% chromium)

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è†
 ± Steel Numbering Systems:
‡ AISI / SAE system

AISI XX XX



 ÷

 







Example:
AISI C 10 20

  


  










‡ ASÎM system

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èË
 ‡ Aluminum Alloys
± Good electrical and thermal conductivity; light reflectivity;
High strength-to-weight ratio
± Îhe temper is a main factor governing its strength, hardness,
and ductility.

‡ Copper Alloys
± high electrical and thermal conductivity; resistance to
corrosion; low strength-to-weight ratio
± Brass: Copper-zinc alloy
Bronze: Copper and tin

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è]
 2.13 General Properties of Nonmetals

‡ Plastics
± Plastics are synthetic materials known as polymers
± Îwo principle classes:
(1) Îhermoplastic- material repeatedly soften when heated
and harden when cooled.
(2) Îhermosets- structural change during processing to
become permanently insoluble and infusible.
± Easily molded into complicated shapes; Allow large elastic
deflection; making assembly fast and inexpensive.

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 ‡ Ceramics
± Compounds of nonmetalic as well as metallic elements,
mostly oxides, nitrades, and carbodes.
± High hardness and brittle; High compressive but low tensile
strengths; high temperature and chemical resistance; high
dielectric strength.

‡ Composite
± Composite is made up of two or more unique element. A
high-strength reinforcement material embedded in a
surrounding material.
± Relatively large strength-to-weight ratio.

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Ô
 Home Work Assignment

‡ 2.3
‡ 2.6
‡ 2.10

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