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Fatigue of Materials

Dr. Richard Chung


Department of Chemical and Materials
Engineering
San Jose State University
Learning Objectives
• Explain why the fatigue problems are more profound in
polymers and metals than ceramics and composites
• Describe three stages of a fatigue process in a material (crack
nucleation, crack growth and crack propagation)
• Discuss how the fatigue crack propagation is determined by
the relationship between dC/dN (crack advance rate) and ΔK
(cyclic stress intensity factor)
• Design and use a material having ΔK is less than ΔKth (fail-
safe failure mode)
• Examine and discuss the physical meaning of striation formed
on the fractured surface and determine the crack advance
between cycles
• Determine the conditions of the slow crack growth region and
fast crack growth region of the fractured surface
• Find the relationship between cyclic stress (or strain)
amplitude and number of cycles to help design fatigue
resistant material or applications
What is fatigue?
An engineering structure is often
subjected to the repeated
application of a stress below its
yield strength of the material.
This cyclical stress may occur in
the form of rotation, bending, or
vibration.
Fatigue Testing
 A common test to measure a material’s fatigue
properties is to use a rotating cantilever beam.
 A cylindrical beam is mounted in a motor-driven chuck
with a load applied from the opposite end.
 A fatigue mode (a sinusoidal cycle) of C-0-T-0 is
repeatedly applied to the beam.
 The maximum stress acting on the beam is governed
by the following equation:

10.18P
σ = 3
d
where l is the length of the beam, P is the load, and d
is the diameter of the beam.
Example 1: A solid tool-steel shaft must be 96 inch long and
must survive continuous operation for one year with an
applied force of 12,500 pounds. The shaft is rotating one
revolution per minute during operation. Design a shaft that
will meet these requirements.

Solution:
No. of cycles= (1 cycle/min)(60 x 24 x
365min) = 5.256 x 105 cycles/yr.
From figure 6-19, the applied stress is
around 72,000psi
Example 1: A solid tool-steel shaft must be 96 inch long and
must survive continuous operation for one year with an
applied force of 12,500 pounds. The shaft is rotating one
revolution per minute during operation. Design a shaft that
will meet these requirements.
Solution:
No. of cycles= (1 cycle/min)(60 x 24 x 365min) = 5.256 x
105 cycles/yr.
From figure 6-19, the applied stress is around 72,000psi

(10.18)(96in.)(12500lbs )
72,000
d = 5.54 psi =
inches
d3
Add a safety factor to the system:
d = 5.54 x1.05 = 5.82 inches
Terminology
 Endurance limit: is the stress below which that
failure by fatigue will never occur, this is a
preferred design criterion.
 Fatigue life: indicates how long (no. of cycles) a
component survives a particular stress.
 Fatigue strength: is applicable to a component
has No endurance limit. It is the maximum stress
for which fatigue will not occur at a particular
number of cycles, in general, 500 million cycles.
 Endurance ratio: the endurance limit is
approximately ½ the tensile strength.
Definitions
σ min
Stress Ratio = R =
σ max
σ a 1− R
Amplitude Ratio = A = =
σ m 1+ R
1− A 1 −R
R= A=
1+ A 1 +R
σ R σ max − σ min
Alternating Stress = σ a = =
2 2
σ max + σ min
Mean Stress = σ m =
2
The difference between Point Stresses
(σ ) and Nominal Stresses (S)
For simple axial loading, σ = S
For bending, σ ≠ S
S=Mc/I; where M =bending moment, c =
the distance from neutral axis to edge,
and I = the area moment of inertia about
the axis.
For notched specimen (No yielding), σ
= K t⋅ S
where Kt = elastic stress concentration
factor.
Stress vs. Life (S-N) Curves
An equation can be derived to
represent an S-N curve
σ a = C + D logN f
σ a − C = log N f
D

e σ a −C = N Df
eσa
C
= N D
f
e
σ a = AN B
f
σ a = AN B
f

σ a = σ ' f (2 N f ) b

A = 2b σ ’f B=b
Plotting in Linear vs. Logarithmic scales
Three factors are necessary to
cause fatigue failure:
A maximum tensile stress of
sufficiently high value
A large enough variation or
fluctuation in the applied stress
A sufficiently large number of
cycles of the applied stress
Variables Affecting Fatigue In A
Material
 Stress concentration
 Corrosion (Environment)

 Temperature

 Overload

 Metallurgical structure (Microstructure)

 Residual stress (shot peening, presetting)

 Combined stress

 Surface condition
Stress Amplitude versus Mean
Stress
 Mean stress effects can be plotted in a diagram
using stress amplitude versus mean stress.
 Estimates of mean stress effects for un-notched
specimens can be determined by Morrow
equation or SWT equation (Smith, Watson, and
Topper)
σa
σ ar =
σm
1−
σ' f σ ar = σ maxσ a
where σ ar= equivalent completely reversed stress
The Palmgren-Miner Rule
The fatigue failure of a material under a
variable (multiple) amplitude loading is
expected when such life fractions sum to
unity.
N1 N2 N3 Nj
+ + + = ∑ =1
N f1 N f 2 N f 3 Nf j
In the case of creep-fatigue, a fracture
criterion will be defined as:
Ni ti
∑N +∑t =1
f i f i
Initiation of Fatigue Cracks
Fracture Toughness (KIC )

Design based on strength

Design based on toughness

Yield Strength (σ y)
Crack Initiation and
Propagation
Ni Nt = Ni +Np
Maximum Cycle Stress

Ni = # of cycles for initiation


Np= # of cycles for propagation
Ni Np

Number of Cycles
Crack Rate As A Function of The
Stress-Intensity Range (∆ K)
• When the length of the crack is small, the
growth rate of the crack (∆ a/∆ N)is also
small
• As the the length of the crack increases,
the growth rate of the crack (∆ a/∆ N) also
increases
• Under identical cyclic loading, larger initial
cracks propagate to failure in short cycles
dc
• = A( ∆K ) m

dN
where A is the consatnt, m is the slope
Example: A metal strip (4 inch wide and 0.2 inch thick) is loaded in a
cyclic loading ranging from 6,000 to 43,000 lbs. A crack is found
located in the center of the strip that extends through the thickness.
For c = 0.1 and 0.4 inch , calculate ∆ K.
Answer:
Assume the geometry factor F = 1 K i = FS πc
43 ,000
S max = =53 ,750 psi
0.2 x 4
6,000
S min = =7,500 psi
0.2 x 4
Compute stress intensity range for c =0.1inch
K1max =S max πc =53 ,750 π(0.1) =30 .1Ksi in
K1min =S min πc =7,500 π(0.1) =4.2 Ksi in
∆K1 =K1max −K1min =30 .1 −4.2 =25 .9 Ksi in
Repeat the calculatio ns for c =0.4inch
K 2 max =S max πc =53 ,750 π(0.4) =60 .3Ksi in
K 2 min =S min πc =7,500 π(0.4) =8.4 Ksi in
∆K 2 =K 2 max −K 2 min =60 .4 −8.4 =51 .9 Ksi in
The Walker Equation
S min
R=
S max
γ ∆K
∆K =K max (1 −R ) =
(1 −R )1−γ
γ is a material constant
dc
= A1 ( ∆K ) m1
dN
m1
dc  ∆K 
= A1 
(1 −R )1−γ 

dN  
dc A1
=
m1 (1−γ )
( ∆ K ) m1

dN (1 −R )
A1
∴A = (1−γ )
and m =m1
(1 −R ) m1
The Forman Equation

dc A2 (∆ K ) m2
A2 (∆ K ) m2
= =
d N (1 − R) K c − ∆ K (1 − R)(K c − K m a x)
• The R ratio has strong effects on the
behavior of slow growth rate

∆K th
∆K th = 1−γ th
(1 − R )
Fatigue Life

cf
dN
N if = ∫( ) dc
ci
dc
1− m / 2 1− m / 2
cf −c i
N if = (m ≠ 2)
A( F∆S π ) (1 − m / 2)
m
Summary
• Fatigue failures are often focused on metals and
polymers.
• Endurance limit and fatigue life can be used to help
prevent fatigue in materials
• When applied stress magnitude increases, the
number of cycles decreases
• Materials can fail by fatigue even when they contain
no cracks
• A fatigue failure is based on the accumulation of
fatigue cycles used at low and high cyclic stresses
• A final fractured surface resembles a ductile failure
pattern which includes three distinct stages: crack
nucleation, crack growth and crack propagation.
• The spacing between the beach marks corresponds
to the crack advance per cycle in materials.
Summary (cont’d)
• As long as ΔK is less than ΔKth , the crack growth rate is not
going to increase
• Using a material at ΔK value (less than ΔKth), a fail safe
fatigue design can be achieved.
• The slow-crack growth surface in metals is generally smooth,
unless oxidation or abrasion have already developed.
• The fast-crack region on a fractured surface is observed as
dull and fibrous resembling a tensile ductile failure.
• Polymers can develop εDCG (shear band cracking
accompanied by crazing) prior to DCG (discontinuous crack
growth)
• Temperature will have great effects on polymer and metal
fatigue. High frequency of loading could yield hysteric
heating and thermal softening which could significantly
reduce the fatigue life/endurance limit in a material. Creep-
fatigue could be a complicated process for material failure
prediction.

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