DESIGN,LOADING &

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
By:
DR EMMA MARINIE AHMAD
ZAWAWI
emmarinie@yahoo.com
 LOAD ACTION ON TALL
BUILDINGS
• Dead Loads
• Live Loads
• Wind Loads
• Seismic Loading
• Construction Loads
• Loads Due to Restrained Volume Changes of Materials
• Rain, Snow & Ice Loads
• Water and Earth Pressure Loads
• Impact and Dynamic Loads
• Blast Loads
• Combination of Loads
 a. Dead Load
• Static forces caused by the
weight of every element
within the structure.
• The forces resulting in dead
load consists of the weights
of the load bearing elements
of the building, floor and
ceiling finishes, permanent
partition walls, façade
cladding, storage tanks,
mechanical distribution
systems etc.
 b. Live Load
• ‘Occupancy Loads’ : Loads
caused by the contents of
objects within or on a
building. Not part of the
structure
• Include weights of people,
furniture, movable
partitions, mechanical
equipments (e.g
computers, business
machines) etc.
• Variable and
unpredictable. Change in
live loads not only over
time but also as a function
of location.
 c. Wind Loads
• Lateral action caused by
winds.
• Wind velocity in general
increases with height. The
taller the building is, the more
exposed the building to
strong winds.
• Can cause the parts of the
external wall or roof to be
blown off.
• If the building is slender, it
will sway or vibrate in the
wind.
• Major problem for the
designer of tall buildings.
 d. Seismic Loading
• The earth’s crust is not
static; its subject to constant
motion.
• Seismic motion acts on the
building by shaking the
foundation back and forth.
• The mass of the building
resists this motion, setting up
inertia forces throughout the
structure
 e. Construction Loads
• Loads during construction
of a building – example
contractors commonly
stockpile heavy
equipment and materials
on a small area of the
structure.
• Causes concentrated
loads that are much
larger than the assumed
live loads which the
structure was designed.
 TALL BUILDING STRUCTURAL
Elements
Linear
SYSTEMS
- Column and Beam
- Capable of resisting
axial and rotational
beam

- Floor : solid or ribbed,

- Wall : either solid with
Elements

supported on floor
Surface

peforation or trussed,
framing, capable of
capable of carrying
supporting forces in and
axial and rotational
perpendicular to the
forces
plane
Elements

- Façade envelope or
Spatia

core for example,

tying the building
together to act as a
unit
 - types of structural systems
• Parallel Bearing Walls
• Cores and Façade Bearing Walls
• Self Supporting Boxes
• Cantilevered Slab
• Flat Slab
• Interspatial
• Suspension
• Staggered Truss
• Rigid Frame
• Rigid Frame and Core
• Trussed Frame
• Belt-Trussed and Core
• Tube in Tube
• Bundled Tube
 a. Parallel Bearing Walls
• Comprised of plannar
vertical elements that are
prestressed by their own
weight, thus efficiently
absorb lateral force action.
• Used mostly for apartment
building ahere large free
spaces are not needed
and mechanical systems
do not necessitate core
structures.
b. Cores and Facades Bearing Walls

• Planar vertical elements

form exterior walls
around a core structure.
• This allows for open
interior spaces, which
depend on the spanning
capacities of the floor
structure.
• The core houses
mechanical and vertical
transportation systems
and adds to the stiffenes
of the building
 c. Rigid Frame
• Rigid joints are used between
an assemblage of linear
elements to form vertical and
horizontal planes.
• The vertical planes consists
of columns and girders
mostly on a rectangular grid
• A similar organizational grid
is used is used for the
horizontal planes consisting
of beams and girders.
• With the integrity of the
spatial skeleton depending
on the strength and rigidity
of the individual columns and
beams, story height and
column spacing become
controlling design
considerations
 d. Rigid Frame and Core
• As rigid frame but
introducing a core
structure to increase
the lateral resistance
of the building as a
result of the core and
frame interaction.
• The core systems
house the mechanical
and vertical
transportation
systems.
 e. Self Supporting Boxes
• Boxes are prefabricated
three dimensional units
that resemble the
bearing wall when they
are place and joined
together.
• The boxes are stacked
like bricks in the ’English
pattern bond’ resulting
in a criss crossed wall
beam system.
 f. Cantilevered Slab
• Supporting the floor
systems from a central
core allown for a
column-free space with
the strength of the slab
as the limit of the
building size.
• Large quantities of steel
are required especially
with large slab
projections.
• Slab stiffenes can be
increased by tacking
advantage of
prestressing techniques.
 g. Flat Slab
• Generally consists of
uniformly thick
concrete floor slabs
supported on
columns
• No deep beams
allowing for a
mimimum story
height
 h. Interspatial
• Cantilevered story high
framed structures are
employed on every
other floor to create
usable space within
and above the frame.
• The space within the
framed floor is used for
fixed operations, and
the totally free space
above the frame can
adapt to any type of
activity.
 i. Suspension
• Employing hangers
instead of columns to
carry the floor loads.
• The cables carry the
gravity loads to
trusses cantilevering
from a central core.
 j. Staggered Truss
• Story-high trusses are
arranged so that each
building floor rests
alternatively on the
top chord of one truss
and the bottom of the
next.
• Besides carrying the
vertical loads, this
truss arrangement
minimizes wind
bracing requirements
by transferring wind
loads to the base
through web members
and floor slab.
 k. Trussed Frame
• Combining a rigid (or
hinged) frame with
vertical shear trusses
provides an increase in
strength and stiffenes
of the structure.
• The design of the
structure may be
based on using the
frame for the
resistance of gravity
loads and the vertical
truss for wind loads
similar to the riogid
frame and core case.
 l. Belt Trussed Frame and
Core
• Belt trusses tie the
façade columns to the
core, thus eliminating
the individual action of
frame and core.
• The bracing is called
cap trussing when it is
on the top of the
building and belt
trussing when around
lower sections.
 m. Tube in Tube
• The exterior columns
and beams are spaced
so closely that the
façade has the
appearance of a wall
with perforated window
openings.
• The entire building acts
as a hollow tube
cantilevering out of the
ground.
• The interior core (tube)
increases the stiffenes
of the building by
sharing the loads with
the facade tube.
 n. Bundled Tube
• An assemblage of
individual tubes
resulting in a
multiple-cell tube.
• The increase in
stiffnes is apparent
and allows for the
greates height and
the most floor area.
STRUCTURAL SYSTEMS FOR TALL BUILDINGS
OF DIFFERENT HEIGHTS
 Efficiency of structural systems of tall buildings
Building Cases Year Stories Slender kN/m2 Structural
Empire State Building, New York 1931 102 9.3 2.02 Braced rigid frame

John Hancock Centre, Chicago 1968 100 7.9 1.42 Trussed tube
World Trade Centre, New York 1972 110 6.9 1.77 Frame tube
Sears Tower, Chicago 1974 109 6.4 1.58 Bundled tube
Chase Manhattan, New York 1963 60 7.3 2.64 Braced rigid frame
US Steel Building, Pittsburgh 1971 64 6.3 1.44 Shearwalls+outrigger+belt
trusses
IDS Centre, Minneapolis 1971 57 6.1 0.86 Shearwalls+outrigger+belt
trusses
Boston Co. Building, Boston 1970 41 4.1 1.01 K-braced tube
Alcoa Building, San Francisco 1969 26 4.0 1.24 Latticed tube

John Hancock Centre Alcoa Building, San Boston Co. Building,

Empire State Building U.S Steel Tower Francisco Boston
 VERTICAL LOADING SYSTEMS OF TALL
BUILDINGS
• The main function of the vertical
loading systems is to transfer the dead
and live loads of the superstructure to
the substructure.
• Systems of transferring the loads:
- Structural Wall System
- Skeleton frame System
- Suspension System
- Composite Wall Frame System
- Cantilevered Floor System
- Transfers System
 Structural Wall System
• Loads are transmitted to the ground via floor and
wall (designed as load bearing wall).
• Masonry and brick load bearing were common
during the late 19th and late 20th century.
• Now load bearing walls are made from reinforced
concrete ;high performance concrete (HPC) .
• Usually of precast concrete panels systems and
cast in situ concrete buildings using ‘tunnel
forms’.
• Usually residential type because the internal wall
layout do not need to be changeable such as in
office building.
Skeleton Frame System

• Loads are transferred to the

beam and column grid to the
ground.
• Using RC or Steel frame.
• Faster to erect especially
when structural steel is used
 Suspension System

 The floors of the

building are
suspended over a long
span.
 Ability to provide a
column free floor.
 Three types:
i. Hanger system
ii. Bridge System
iii. Catenary System
 i. Hanger
System
• Loads are transmitted Central Pier Tower

upwards through vertical

tensile members to outrigger Tension Ring

arms.
• The loads are then Hanger
transferred from the Elements
outriggers to one or more
piers that transmit the loads
to the ground.
• The tensile members can be Curtain Wall
hangers or cables and the Facade

pier tower are either

monolithic reinforced
concrete load bearing walls
or steel framed tower.
• e.g Sabah Foundation
Building ; Hong Kong &
Shanghai Bank Building,
Hongkong. Sabah Foundation Building Structural System
Hongkong & Shanghai Bank
Building, Hong Kong
 ii. Bridge Corner core RC tower ;
contains either stairs or
risers and toilets
System
Central core RC
• The floor slabs are tower; contains
suspended between two or lifts shafts

more towers or mega

columns.
• No intermediate columns
used to support the floor Floor slab
slabs. structural
girder and
• e.g ; Tabung Haji Building, beams
Petronas Twin Towers,
OCBC Singapore.

Tabung Haji Building OCBC Singapore Knights of Columbus Building

 iii. Cantenary
System
• Example: Federal
Reserve bank of
Minneapolis
• Consisted of a pair of
catenary members
that span between
two towers.
• Both catenary
members lie on the
long facades of the
building
 d. Composite Wall-Frame
System
• The skeleton frame and structural load
bearing walls are used together.
• Several arrangements:
i. - the wall are arranged to form a core.
- the frame surrounds the core walls.
- tubes configuration.
ii.- the walls are located at opposite ends
of square shaped plan; generally C-
shaped.
- the frame is located between the end
walls.
iii.- the walls are located at the corners of
square shaped or rectangular shaped
plan.
- the corner walls are L-shaped.
- the frame is located within the plan
and four corner walls.
 e. Cantilevered Floor System
• Floor slabs rest on beams cantilevering from
a central tower.
• The loads of the building is transferred to the
foundation through the central tower.
• E.g: Nagakin Capsule Tower, Marina Building,
Miami & Turnig Torso Malmo
 f. Transfer System
• For building where lower floors
have lesser columns than the
rest of the building.
• The transfer is in the form of a
horizontal elements.
• Consists of mega column and
mega beams at lower floor
• Skeleton frame is positioned
above the transfer mega
structures.
• The loads are transferred from
the transfer mega beams to the
mega columns and then to the
foundation.
 Minimizing Vertical Loads
• Foundations costs may be lower if the total vertical loads can
be reduced
• Some of the ways are:
- reducing the floor plan area as the building increases
- using lighter materials in the upper floors
- using steel instead of R.C for the structural system
- reducing the cross-section area of the structural
members in the upper floors
- placing the heavier M&E plant in an adjunct building e.g
using district cooling system.
 HORIZONTAL LOADING SYSTEM
• Horizontal (lateral)
forces act on the
superstructure and
substructure of
buildings.
• Two types of
horizontal forces:
i. Wind Forces
ii. Earthquake Forces

WIND FORCES
• Wind is variable both in
direction and strength.
• Wind exerts loads on the
tall structure causing it to
oscillate or sway like a
pendulum.
• Oscillations must be kept
to a minimum:
- to ensure occupants’
psychological and
physical comfort.
- to prevent
deterioration of joints
in the curtain walling
and building services.
EARTHQUAKE
S
 Earthquakes create
lateral forces on a tall
building causing it to
sway.
 Cause the ground to
move horizontally and
vertically
 Earthquake-resistant
building has to absorb or
counteract the forces.
 Preventing Oscillation of Tall Building
Three main ways:

1. Structural methods by either

stiffening or having heavier
mass.
- Shear Walls
- Moment Resistant Frame
Systems : eg tube systems
- Bracing
- Diagrid systems

2. Counteracting the oscillation

by either damping devices or
top-to-bottom structural tie
members.
- Guying methods
- Damping Devices :
Passive dampers or
Active dampers

3. Aerodynamic methods.
 a. Structural Methods
i. Shear Walls

• Structural elements to induce

stiffenes in the building.
• Monolithic walls of reinforced
concrete, brick or masonry can
be used to provide stiffenes ;
walls with a moment resistant
frame.
• Location of the shear walls are:
- Central core of building
- Ends or corners of
building
- At certain wall position
inside the building
 a. Structural Methods
ii. Moment Resistant Frame
Systems (also known as
Skeleton Frame)
• Three dimensional grid of
linear column and beams –
connected each other using
rigid or semi rigid
connections.
• Usually used ‘tubes systems’
– load bearing columns of
the exterior perimeter
are placed together
to form a ‘tube’.
- single tube ; tube within
tube; bundling of tubes;
braced tubes
• e.g : Xerox Building USA,
Sears Towers USA
 a. Structural Methods
iii. Bracing
• Adding braces to the frame.
• The bracing can be in different locations in
the structure.
• The bracing configurations includes:
- some vertical and/or horizontal bays of
the frame are braced.
- solid beam bracing- used to brace
shear walls together.
- vertical truss – consists of mega
column, mega beam and mega brace
single plane truss arrangement that is
located along the height of the
moment resistant frame.
- a mega space truss that housed
floor slabs, minor columns and beams.
• E.g: Bank of China, Hong Kong, John
Hancock Building, USA, HongKong
Shanghai bank, Hong Kong
 a. Structural Methods
iv. Diagrid Systems
• Consists of a grid of diagonal
members that cross each
other.
• The distrubution of the load
is similar to that experienced
in a single layer grid dome.
• The diagrid is tied to the core
by the floor elements along
the height of the building.
• At the top of the building the
diagrid terminates to either a
ring beam or the core itself.
• Hearst Tower ; Swiss Re
Building, London; Hubbell
Lighting Headquarters -
Greenville, S.C
 b. Counteracting The Oscillation
i. Guying Method
• Top-to-bottom structural
tie members are installed
to the main vertical
structure to prevent
swaying of the structure.
• The structural tie
members are either steel
cables that are stretched
or monolithic R.C Fins
that are extended
between the ground and
the top of the tall
buildings.
• Usually used for towers.
 b. Counteracting The Oscillation
ii. Damping Services
• The devices are used in the structure of lighter tall buildings
(normally of steel frame construction) and tall ‘pencil’ thin
towers and spires of super tall buildings.

• Several types of dampers”

* Passive Dampers : is tuned to react to the movement of
the building
- viscoelastic dampers
- passive tuned mass dampers
- pendulum tuned mass dampers
- liquid tuned mass dampers
- viscous liquid dampers
* Active Dampers : require sensors to detect the movement
and initiate the mechanical hydraulic piston actuators that
push against the damper mass and structure.
 Passive Dampers
i. Viscoelastic Dampers
• Viscoelastic material is
placed at various points
in the structure ; often a
rubber or neoprene pad
sandwiched between
the faces of two steel
members.
• The pad provide shear
resistance to the
oscillations forces.
• Eg. Former World Trade
Centre New York.
 Passive Dampers
ii. Passive Tuned Mass Dampers
• These are sliding or horizontal
moving mass of steel or concrete
tuned to move in reaction to the
horizontal movement of the
building.
• The slab lies on a bed of oil and
held in position by heavy springs
(or hydraulic pistons) attached to
the structural frame of the
building.
• The movement of the building
causes the mass to compress some
spring and extend the others.
• The extended springs pulls on the
building frame while the
compressed springs pushes on the
time.
• This counteracts the movement of
the building
• Usually located at top of building
where the swing of the oscillation
is most.
Passive Dampers
iii.Pendulum Tuned Mass Dampers
• A suspended mass acting as pendulum is used.
• The pendulum mass is held by pistons.
• Act similar to the passive tuned mass damper.
• Need high head room
• E.g : Taipei 101 building.
 Passive Dampers
iv.Liquid Tuned Mass
Dampers
• Consists of two large
tanks or more whose
water contents flow from
tank to tank in response
to lateral forces that sway
the building.
• The sloshing forces of the
water on the sides of the
tanks as it moves from
one tank to another
counteract the swaying
forces.
• Water tank for firefighting
or air conditioning system
of the building can be
used for this purpose.
Passive Dampers
v. Viscous Liquid
Dampers.
• Similar to the use of
hydraulic pistons in
cars to absorb
vibrations from the
road.
• Special hydraulic
pistons contains
viscous liquid are
placed at suitable
locations throughout
the buildings.
• E.g: Torre Mayor
Building, Mexico City
 Active Dampers
• Require sensors to detect the movement and initiate the
mechanical hydraulic piston actuators that push against
the damper mass and structure.
• Require external mechanisms and electricity to move them in
response to the horizontal movement of the building.
• Computers are used to fine tune the responses to the swaying
of the building.
 Hybrid Damper
• Passive active damper that have both the passive damper and active damper
• The passive damper is used to for the initial movement up to a dynamic movement point where it
turns off and the active damper activates to respond to the movement.
• Now used as an earthquake measure rather than resist wind induced oscillation.
• E.g: Fukuoka Building, Japan.
 12345

c. Aerodynamics Methods
• The building cross sectional plan is
designed to have minimum air
turbulence that could cause
oscillation.
• The reduction or air turbulence can
be obtained by:
i. have circular plan rather
than rectangular or square
plan of the building.
ii cutting or rounding off the
corners of the building.
iii. Providing for perforation at
the corners of the building or
in the building.
iv. Having channels in the
buildings silhouette that allow
the wind to be channeled
away from the
face of the building
• e.g: Shanghai World Financial
Centre
 NEXT WEEK TASK

Total Design Approach

***not to be assess
 DESIGN
the structural elements of the building must responds to all
this forces where members must be arranged and
connected to one another in such manner as to absorb the
forces and guide them safely with a minimum effort to the
ground.

building envelope building must

has to accommodate cope with vertical
the differences in forces of gravity
requires a team
temperature, air approach between and horizontal
pressure and the various disciplines forces of wind
humidity between of design, material above grund and
fabrication the seismic forces
exterior and interior and building construction
environments below ground

TOTAL DESIGN APPROACH

Design Parameters
Design Process and
Tools
Design Elements of Tall
Building Form