‫البقرة آية ‪32‬‬

‫ رمضان محمد احمد‬.‫د‬

Eslam.anes@yahoo.com
Cell
• Basic unit of structure and function of the
body.
– Highly organized molecular factory.

• 3 principal parts:
– Membrane.
– Cytoplasm and organelles.
– Nucleus.
Human Cell
Cell Membrane
Phospholipids
• The phospholipids are arranged in a bilayer, with their
polar, hydrophilic phosphate heads facing outwards,

• and their non-polar, hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing

each other in the middle of the bilayer.
Protein

• PERIPHERAL PROTEINS, located on both the

Internal and External Surface.
• INTEGRAL PROTEINS: Proteins that are Embedded
in the Lipid Bilayer

Functions of proteins

• Channels or Pores
• carriers
• Enzymes.
• Pumps.
Carbohydrates
• The carbohydrates are attached to the
membrane proteins or sometimes to the
phospholipids.
Functions:
Protection.
Cell recognition.
Antigens such as the ABO antigens on blood
cells.
 Function of cell membranes
• Forms boundary between the contents of the cell
and its external environment.

• Regulates the passage of substances into and out

of the cell (certain substances).

• Enables the cell to communicate with the external

environment (receptor proteins that receive
chemical messenger molecules e.g hormones from
other cells).
Membrane

Transport
Movement of molecules / substances
in and out of cell

 Cell membranes are a barrier to most

substances, and this property allows
materials to be concentrated inside cells,
excluded from cells, or simply separated
from the outside environment.
Methods by which substances can
move across a cell membrane:

– Passive Transport (simple diffusion,

facilitated diffusion and osmosis).

– Active Transport.

– Bulk transport (Exocytosis and Endocytosis)

Movement of substances in
and out of cell
Movement of substances in
and out of cell
Passive transport

• Passive transport is the transport of

substances by a trans-membrane protein
molecule or through lipid bilayer.

• No energy required

• Move due to gradient

 Simple Diffusion
• A few substances can diffuse directly
through the lipid bilayer part of the
membrane. (such as H2O, O2 and CO2).
• Small water-soluble molecules can pass
through channels.
 Factors affecting Diffusion
The rate of diffusion directly proportional
with:
1. Concentration gradient.
2. Solubility in the membrane.
3. Temperature.
4. Surface area of the membrane.
The rate of diffusion inversely proportional
with:
1. Molecular weight of diffusible substance.
2. Thickness of the membrane.
Facilitated diffusion
– Their transport must therefore be "facilitated" by
proteins (Carriers).
– It is similar to simple diffusion in the sense that it
does not require energy and transport is
again down an electrochemical gradient.
Types of carrier proteins
– A uniport carrier: transport one substance.
– A symport carrier: transport two substances in the
same direction.
– An antiport carrier: transport two substances in the
opposite directions.
Factors affecting transport rate in
Facilitated diffusion
– Number of carriers.

– Carrier activity.

– Presence of carrier inhibitors.

– Presence of competing substances.

 Osmosis
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a membrane.
• Water molecules can diffuse freely across a membrane, down
their concentration gradient, so water therefore diffuses from a
dilute to a concentrated solution (more solute molecules).
:Osmosis
diffusion of H2O through a semipermeable
membrane from a diluted to a concentrated
solution.
Osmotic pressure:
is the pressure required to stop
osmosis completely
There are three possible concentrations of
solution to consider:

• Hypotonic
– Solutes in cell more than outside
– Outside solvent will flow into cell

• Isotonic
– Solutes equal inside & out of cell

• Hypertonic
– Solutes greater outside cell
– Fluid will flow out of cell
Osmosis in animal cells
 Active transport
• Active transport is used to move ions or molecules
against a concentration gradient (low concentration
to high concentration).

• Requires energy.

• The energy is supplied by ATP which is released by

breaking ATP   ADP + Pi + energy

• Cells that use a lot of active transport have many

mitochondria to produce the ATP needed.
Active transport
- Against conc. gradient
- Use carrier
Needs energy -
Types of Active transport
• Primary Active transport: energy is
supplied directly from ATP breakdown.
The best example: Na-K Pump.
Ca pump

• Secondary Active transport: The

energy is supplied indirectly from ATP.
The best example: glucose & amino-acid
transport in the intestine & kidney.
The Sodium-Potassium Pump

• The sodium-potassium pump uses active

transport to move 3 sodium ions to the outside of
the cell for each 2 potassium ions that it moves
in.

• It is found in all human cells, especially nerve and

muscle cells.

• One third of the body’s energy expenditure is

used to operate the sodium-potassium pump.
 Inside Outside
Na+

Na
+
Na+ Na
+
Na
Na+ +

K+
K+
K+ K+
Inside Outside

a+
N
a+
N
a+
N
K+
K+
K+

K+
 2ry (Indirect) Active Transport
• Indirect ATP use: uses Epot.
stored in concentration
gradient (of Na+ and K+)

• Coupling of Ekin of one

molecule with movement of
another molecule

• Example: Na+ / Glucose

symporter

– other examples

• 2 mechanisms for Glucose

transport
Bulk transport
– Large molecules (such as proteins, polysaccharides
and nucleotides) and even whole cells are moved in
and out of cells by using membrane vesicles.
Endocytosis
 Endocytosis
• Endocytosis is the transport of materials into a cell.

• Materials are enclosed by a fold of the cell

membrane, which then pinches shut to form a closed
vesicle.

• There are two types of endocytosis:

– pinocytosis
– phagocytosis
Pinocytosis
Pinocytosis

• When the materials and the vesicles are

small (such as a protein molecule) the
process is known as pinocytosis (cell
drinking).
Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis

• If the materials are large (such as a white blood

cell ingesting a bacterial cell) the process is
known as phagocytosis (cell eating).

• E.g:
– Kuffer cell in liver engulf worn-out erythrocytes and
bacteria.
– White blood cells (neutrophils and macrophages)
– Amoeba engulf a food particle.
Phagocytosis
Exocytosis
Exocytosis

• Exocytosis is the transport of materials

out of a cell. It is the exact reverse of
endocytosis.

• Materials to be exported must first be

enclosed in a membrane vesicle, usually
from the RER and Golgi Body.
Exocytosis
• Hormones and digestive enzymes are
secreted by exocytosis from the secretory
cells of the intestine and endocrine glands.

• Sometimes materials can pass straight

through cells without ever making contact
with the cytoplasm by being taken in by
endocytosis at one end of a cell and passing
out by exocytosis at the other end.
Exocytosis
 Questions

Introduction and cell

function
Choose the best answer:
The rate of diffusion of a -1
:substance increases when
a- The temperature decreases.

b- The molecular weight decreases.

c- Membrane permeability decreases.

d- The concentration difference

decreases.
:Facilitated diffusion -2
a- Occurs against concentration
gradient.
b- Needs energy derived from ATP.
c- Needs carrier and does not need
energy.
d- Substances can move from low
concentration to high concentration.
 :Osmosis means -3

a- Passage of substances from high

concentration to low concentration.
b- Passage of substances from low
concentration to high concentration.
c- Passage of water from diluted fluids to
concentrated fluids.
d- Passage of water from concentrated
fluids to diluted fluids.
 :In active transport -4
a- substances pass from a low concentra-tion
to a high concentration and need energy.
b- substances pass from a high concentra-
tion to a low concentration and need
energy.
c- water passes from diluted fluids to
concentrated fluids.
d- the substance transported must dissolve in
the lipid bilayer of the cell membrane.
True or false questions
:The cell membrane -1

a- maintains the cell shape and

structure .
b- has selective permeability to certain
ions.
c- can detect chemical signals coming
from other cells.
d- is composed of lipids only.
:Cell membrane proteins -2

a- penetrate the lipid bilayer and act

as ion channels.
b- act as receptors for hormones and
neurotransmitters.
c- act as carrier in facilitated diffusion.
d- prevent transport of ions.
:Phagocytosis -5

a- is the process by which bacteria and dead

tissues are engulfed by cells.
b- is the process by which proteins and
peptides are secreted from the cells.
c- is the process during which the
membrane fuses around the substance
and moves it inside.
d- is one of the active transport mechanisms
.
 :Write short notes on

1- Functions of cell membrane.

2- Functions of membrane proteins.
3- Osmosis
4- Facilitated diffusion.
5- Compare and contrast:
a) Simple diffusion and active transport.
b) Simple diffusion and facilitated diffusion.
c) Endocytosis and exocytosis.
Which of the following is a way for
solutes in a aqueous solution to move
from an area of high solute
concentration to an area of low solute
?concentration

A. Facilitated diffusion
B. Osmosis
C. Active transport
D.A and B
E. None of these
 Which of the following defines
?the term specificity
A. movement of molecules by the use of
vesicles
B. the energy required to move molecules
C. a group of carrier proteins operating at
their maximum rate
D. carrier transport of a group of closely
related molecules
E. none of these
Water will always move from ___________
.situations to _______ situations

A. Hyperosmotic, hyposmotic
B. Hyposmotic, hyperosmotic
C. Hyposmotic, isosmotic
D. Hyperosmotic, isosmotic
Which of the following pairs of molecular
characteristics favors diffusion through the
?cell membrane

A. Large, polar
B. Large, non-polar
C. Small, polar
D.Small, non-polar
Which of the following is a way for solutes in
a aqueous solution to move from an area of
high solute concentration to an area of low
?solute concentration

A. Facilitated diffusion
B. Osmosis
C. Active transport
D.A and B
E. None of these
 ‫وفي النهاية‬
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‫د‪ .‬رمضان محمد احمد‬
‫‪Eslam.anes@yahoo.com‬‬