REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH

The necessity for organisms to reproduce :

To generate offspring

To pass down of an individual’s genes
To ensure the continuity of the species
To produce new generation
The necessity for the formation of gametes :

 Ensure the continuity of species

 Maintain the diploid chromosomal number
 Ensure genetic variation
 Provide better survival chance for the
offspring to overcome an ever changing
environment
 In humans :
The male gametes sperms
(spermatozoa) – produced in male
reproductive organs – testes

The female gametes ova are produced in

female reproductive organs - ovaries
 Gametes must be produced with
haploid numbers of chromosomes
to ensure the zygotes formed are
always diploid
The male reproductive system
• External genitalia :
Gonads - testes
Scrotum
Penis
 Cross section of testes
Sperms from testes
stored temporarily
before they enter vas
deferens
 STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS
Seminal vesicle Secretes mucus into sperm duct
Sperms temporarily stored before
ejaculation
Prostate gland Produces semen fluid (contains sperm
and slippery fluid)

Cowper’s gland Secretes a slippery fluid which mixes

with the sperms - semen

Sperm duct (vas Transports sperm frm testes to the

deferens) urethra

Penis Ejaculates sperm out of the body

An erectile organ
STRUCTURE FUNCTIONS
Urethra Discharges urine and sperm out of the
male’s body

Scrotum Holds the testes outside the body

Maintains the temp of testes 340C-370C

Testes -Produces sperm

-Produces male sex hormones
(androgen & testosterone)
-The male gonad
Structure of a sperm
 SPERMATOGENESIS
 Spermatozoa formation
 takes about 65-75 days
 occurs in the densely coiled seminiferous
tubules
o Consists of 2 types of cells :
o Germinal epithelial cell
o Sertoli cells
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 A pair of ovaries
 Fallopian tubes
 Uterus
 Cervix
 Vagina
 Vulva
STRUCTURE OF OVUM
 OOGENESIS
 Formation of oocytes
 Begins in the developing ovaries of a female
foetus b4 birth
• During fetal development females have
oogonia which are diploid sex cells.
• While still in the womb the oogonia divide by
mitosis to form ½-1 million primary oocytes.
• These primary oocytes will begin the first
meiotic division but stall during prophase I.
• The female is born with these primary
oocytes.
• By the time the female reaches puberty
approximately 40,000 of the primary oocytes
will remain.
• Beginning during puberty, each month
hormones from the anterior pituitary
stimulate a primary oocyte to complete the
first meiotic division generating two
secondary oocytes of unequal size.
• The smaller secondary oocyte is called a polar
body, containing one set of chromosomes.
• The larger secondary oocyte is the ovum (egg)
that will be released from the ovary for
fertilization by the spermatozoa.
• Only if the ovum is fertilized will it continue
the second meiotic division.
• If fertilized, the ovum divides again to produce
a second polar body, with the fertilized ovum
forming the diploid zygote.
• If the ovum is not fertilized within 24 hours
after release it will be broken down.
COMPARISON
 SIMILARITIES
o Both processes takes place in reproductive
organs
o Involve meiosis I and meiosis II
o Produce haploid gametes
o Ensure the success of fertilisation
Spertmatogenesis Oogenesis
Sperms Gametes Ovum
produced
Testes Place of formation Ovaries
Small Size of gametes Large
Has head, Shape of gametes Round
midpiece and tail

Continuous Meiotic division Not continuous

Four No. of gametes One (3 polar
produced during bodies
meiosis degenerated)
Spertmatogenesis Oogenesis
Divide by mitosis Germinal Divide by mitosis
throughout the epithelial cells during foetal
adult life of men stage. At birth, an
after puberty ovary contains all
the primary
oocytes – develop
into ova
Meiosis I and II are Completion of Meiosis II
usually completed meiotic division completes ONLY IF
the 20 oocyte is
fertilised by a
sperm
Spertmatogenesis Oogenesis
Cytoplasm are Cytokinesis Unequal
equally distributed in distribution as
all four sperm cells almost all the
produced cytoplasm
contained in the 20
oocyte and ovum
while all the small
polar bodies
finally degerate
 MENSTRUATION
 Menstrual cycle – cyclical changes that happen
in endometrium of the uterus
 Every 28 days
 There will be bloody discharge from the
endometrium when no fertilisation happens.
 HORMONES – MENSTRUAL CYCLE
• Pituitary hormones
– FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone)
– LH (Luteinising hormone)

• Ovarian hormones
– Progesterone
– Oestrogen
Effect of hormonal levels on the
following:

a) follicle development,
b) ovulation,
c) formation of corpus luteum,
d) thickness of the endometrium .
PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME (PMS)
Cyclical order of severe
mental, physical and emo
distress
5-11days before menstruation
Common symptoms: mood
swings, headaches, weight
gain, lethargy, abdominal
pain, sleepy, depression etc
MENOPAUSE
 Stop producing ova
 45-55 yrs old
 FSH & LH less stimulated –
development of follicle &
ovulation inhibited
 Oestrogen & progesterone
level decrease – mestrual
cycle irregular – stops
 Hot flushes, osteoporosis,
hair loss, body changes
FERTILISATION
 Union of the nuclei of a
sperm and ovum to
produce a zygote
 Occurs in oviduct
(Fallopian tube)
FORMATION OF ZYGOTE
MORULA & BLASTOCYST
 IDENTICAL & NON IDENTICAL TWINS

 Sometimes mutiple embryos are formed

 Twins occur when there are two foetuses
develop in mother’s womb at the same time.
 IDENTICAL TWINS
 An ovum is released by the ovary
 A single ovum is fertilised by a single sperm
 A zygote formed
 Zygote undegoes mitosis & develops into 2
embryos
 Embryos develop into 2 foetuses – share a
placenta
 Either 2 boys / 2 girls
NON IDENTICAL TWINS
o Two ova released by
ovary
o Fertilised by two sperms
simultaneously
o Two different zygote are
formed – two embryos –
two foetuses
o Has own placenta
o May be both
girls/boys/one girl & one
boy
 SIMILARITIES
 Occurrence of twins can be inherited
 Both must go through the meiosis process
 The mortality rate of twins higher than the single
embryo
 Embryos formed after the fertilisation between
an ovum and a sperm
 They have their own umbilical cords
 IDENTICAL NON IDENTICAL
TWINS TWINS
One Number of sperms Two
involved
One Number of ovum involved Two

One Number of zygote Two

One Number of placenta Two
Same Sex of child Same or different
Same Genetic content Different
Same Heredity Different
Share the same Physical characteristics Do not share the
physical same physical
characterisitics characterisitics

Yes Possibility to give birth to No

Siamese twins
 PLACENTA
• Allows dissolved food substance to pass from
mother’s blood into foetus’s blood
• Waste products diffuse frm the blood of the
foetus into the mother’s blood
• Antibodies and hormones diffuse from
mother’s blood into foetus’s blood
• Secretes progesterone (inihibits LH & FSH) &
oestrogen – maintaining a thick & blood
enriched endometrium throughout pregnancy
 ADVANTAGES OF MATERNAL & FOETAL
BLOOD BEING SEPARATED IN PLACENTA
o Prevent the high maternal blood pressure from
destroying the delicate foetal blood vessels
o Prevent the passage of harmful substances
o Prevent the action of chemical substances
o Prevent agglutination – due to mixing of blood
groups of mother & foetus that is incompatible
 CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD
 Natural contraceptive method
 Male contraceptive method
 Female contraceptive method
NATURAL CONTRACEPTIVE METHOD
MALE CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS

Condom
Withdrawal method
Vasectomy
CONDOM
• Prevents the release of
sperms into the vagina
during ejaculation
• Reduces the risk of
sexually transmitted
disease (STD)
WIHTDRAWAL METHOD
• Unrealiable method
• Withdraw penis from
vagina before the
release of semen of
ejaculation
• However, semen
might leak out before
ejaculation.
VASECTOMY
• An irreversible method
• Effect not immediate
as some sperms
remain in distal up to 4
months
• Fertilisation will not
occur since sperms are
absent in semen
during ejaculation.
FEMALE CONTRACEPTIVE METHODS
ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES
• A combination of
oestrogen dan
progesterone pill
• Prevent ovulation
through inhibition of
the secretion of FSH
& LH.
FEMALE CONDOM
• Prevents the entry of
sperms to vagina
• Prevents sexually
transmitted disease
INTRAUTERINE DEVICE (IUD)
• May make the
endometrium less
suitable for
implantation
TUBAL LIGATION

• An irreversible process
with immediate effect
• Fallopian tubes are cut
and ligated.
• Sperms are unable to
fertilise the ovum as
release ovum cannot
reach the part whr
sperms are present.
DIAPHRAGM
• Inserted into the
vagina to cover cervix
before intercourse.
• May remove from
cervix.
• Used with spermicide
to stop sperms frm
entering uterus.
• Reliable method.
SPERMICIDE

• Chemicals that are

available in the form
of cream, foam, gel,
sprays or tablets.
• Kills sperms that
enter vagina.
• Not reliable.