Chapter-6 Sampling And

Pulse Code Modulation

1. Sampling
2. Signal interpolation
3. Pulse code modulation

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Sampling

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Sampling (Cont…)

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Sampling (Cont…)

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Signal Interpolation

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Signal Interpolation (Cont…)

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Signal Interpolation (Cont…)

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Signal Interpolation (Cont…)

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Pulse Code Modulation

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Pulse Code Modulation (Cont…)

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Pulse Code Modulation (Cont…)

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Pulse Code Modulation (Cont…)

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 Noise
In any real physical system, when the signal voltage arise at the
demodulator, it will be accompanied by a voltage waveform which varies
with time in an entirely unpredictable manner. This unpredictable voltage
wave form is a random process called noise.

Types of Noise
Most man made electro-magnetic noise occurs at frequencies below
500 MHz. The most significant of these include:
• Hydro lines
• Ignition systems
• Fluorescent lights
• Electric motors
Therefore deep space networks are placed out in the desert, far from
these sources of interference.

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 Types of Noise (cont..)
• There are also a wide range of natural noise sources which cannot be so
easily avoided, namely:
• Atmospheric noise - lighting < 20 MHz
• Solar noise - sun - 11 year sunspot cycle
• Cosmic noise - 8 MHz to 1.5 GHz
• Thermal or Johnson noise. Due to free electrons striking vibrating
ions.
• White noise - white noise has a constant spectral density over a
specified range of frequencies. Johnson noise is an example of white
noise.
• Gaussian noise - Gaussian noise is completely random in nature
however, the probability of any particular amplitude value follows
the normal distribution curve. Johnson noise is Gaussian in nature.
• Shot noise - bipolar transistors (caused by random variations in the
arrival of electrons or holes at the output electrodes of an amplifying
device)
• Transit time noise - occurs when the electron transit time across a
junction is the same period as the signal.
• Of these, only Johnson noise can be readily analyzed and compensated
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 Noise power
• The noise power is given by:
Pn = kTB
• Where:
• k = Boltzman's constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
• T = temperature in degrees Kelvin
• B = bandwidth in Hz
• If the two signals are completely random with respect to each
other, such as Johnson noise sources, the total power is the
sum of all of the individual powers:

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 Noise power (Cont..)

• A Johnson noise of power P = kTB, can be thought of as a noise

voltage applied through a resistor, Thevenin equivalent.
An example of such a noise source may be a cable or transmission line.
The amount of noise power transferred from the source to a load, such
as an amplifier input, is a function of the source and load impedances

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 Noise power (Cont..)

The rms noise voltage at maximum power transfer is:

Observe what happens if the noise resistance is resolved into two components:

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 Noise Figure
• The terms used to quantify noise :
• Signal to noise ratio: It is either unit-less or specified in
dB. The S/N ratio may be specified anywhere within a system.

Noise Factor (or Noise Ratio):

                              
(unit less)

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 Noise Figure (cont..)
• This parameter (i.e. Noise Figure ) is specified in all high
performance amplifiers and is measure of how much noise
the amplifier itself contributes to the total noise. In a
perfect amplifier or system, NF = 0 dB. This discussion
does not take into account any noise reduction techniques
such as filtering or dynamic emphasis.

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 Noise Figure (cont..)
• Friiss' Formula & Amplifier Cascades
• It is interesting to examine an amplifier cascade to see how
noise builds up in a large communication system.

Amplifier gain can be defined as:

Therefore the output signal power is: 20

 Noise Figure (cont..)

and the noise factor (ratio) can be rewritten as:

The output noise power can now be written:

From this we observe that the input noise is increased by the noise ratio
and amplifier gain as it passes through the amplifier. A noiseless amplifier
would have a noise ratio (factor) of 1 or noise figure of 0 dB. In this case,
the input noise would only be amplified by the gain since the amplifier would
not contribute noise.

Friiss' Formula
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 Model Paper
Communication system CU-510 5th semester
Deptt. Of Electrical Engineering, CECOS Univ.
Note: Q # 1 is compulsory. Attempt any four questions from the remaining part.
Total Time: 3 hrs
Q # 1 Time: 30 minutes
(1):Is frequency modulation a linear modulation?
A) Yes B) No

(2): Does Dirichlet’s condition require a signal to be absolutely integrable?

A) Yes B) No

(3): suitable measure for this signal is -----------

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Q#2
(a) Differentiate between Energy and power signals

(b): what is correlation.

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The end

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