m A.1.

1 Describe the basic structure of the

human eye.
m The human eye is not simply a ball of mush and magic that
allows us to see. On the contrary, it is actually a very complex
structure. The eye actually consists of three layered structures.
The first layer is made up of the cornea (which refracts light
with the lens and serves as the overall focus) and the sclera
(the white of the eye). The middle layer of the eye is made up
of the choroid, the ciliary body (?



 ’ watery
substance between the lens and cornea), and the iris (the
colored part of the eye which controls the size of the pupils
and how much light can enter). The third layer is the retina
which at its core is made up of a thin layer of tissue that
receive chemical and electrical impulses that are then sent
to the visual parts of the brain through the optic nerve. So
yeah, the eye is a pretty cool human feature!
m A.1.2 State and explain the process of
depth of vision and accommodation.
m Having two eyes enables us to obtain two images of
the same thing and then the brain is then able to
judge distance and motion. The size of any image
formed on the retina of the eye depends on the
angle subtended by the object at the eye. The closer
the object is the greater the angle and therefore the
angular magnification. The near point and far point
are important terms one must know to be able to fully
understand ´the eye and sightµ. The near point is the
closest position that an object can be seen in focus
by the naked eye. The far point is the farthest position
that an object can be seen in focus by the naked
eye.
m A.1.3 State that the retina contains rods and
cones, and describe the variation in density
across the surface of the retina.
m The retina contains rods and cones which
are photoreceptors with complementary
properties. Rods: fast response rates,
sensitive to low light levels, insensitive to
color. Cones: slow response rates, insensitive
to low light levels, sensitive to particular
wavelengths of light and allow us to have
color vision. There are far more rods than
cones in the retina; 120 million compared to
6.5 million.
m A.1.4 Describe the function of the rods and
of the cones in photopic and scotopic
vision.
m Rods are utilized during scotopic vision,
which is vision at low light levels. However
they do not mediate color and therefore
are considered to have low spatial
resolution. Rods are great photoreceptors
because of their high sensitivity.
m Cones are used during scotopic vision,
which is vision at high light levels. Cones are
able to pick up color.
m A.1.5 Describe color mixing of light by
addition and subtraction.
All visible colors can be seen by mixing
the three primary colors of light by
addition or subtraction. Addition of light
occurs when light is added to a dark
background. Subtraction of light occurs
when pigments are used to selectively
block out white light.
m A.1.6 Discuss the effect of light and dark,
and color, on the perception of objects.
Certain connotations come along with
light and dark and different colors. These
connotations and actually discrepancies
create varying ways people perceive
object based on the way they physically
see them.
m A.2.1 Describe the nature of
standing (stationary) waves.
A standing wave is a wave that
remains in a constant position.
This phenomenon can occur
because the medium is moving
in the opposite direction to the
wave, or it can arise in a
stationary medium as a result of
interference between two
waves traveling in opposite
directions.
m A.2.2 Explain the formation of one-
dimensional standing waves.
m 2

 
  


are
formed when two waves of the same speed
and wavelength and equal or almost equal
amplitudes, travelling in opposite directions
meet.
m A standing wave has 
, points at which
the displacement is always 
, and
  
, points at which displacement is
at .
m A.2.3 Discuss the modes of
vibration of strings and air in open
and in closed pipes.
The modes of vibrations are
called harmonics. The first
harmonic is called the
fundamental harmonic and
consists of one oscillation. The
other modes are just numbered
according to the number of
oscillations in each.
m 2



(e.g. a flute) have
displacement anti-nodes and
pressure nodes at the ends.

m  



(e.g. a clarinet)
have a displacement anti-node
at the open end and a node at
the close end (this is reversed for
the pressure).
m A.2.4 Compare standing waves and
travelling waves.
G
 
 

  


Energy Propagated Not Propagated
Propagation
Amplitude Single Variable
Amplitude Amplitude
Phase All phase Only 0, 2Ñ
 Ñ
Difference differences 




between 0 and
2Ñ
A.2.5 Solve problems involving standing
waves.
m A.3.1 Describe what is
meant by the Doppler
effect.
m The §




occurs when an


 of sound  
the 


 of it




to each
other. The relative
speed will change 



 of the
sound waves so that
the observer will
experience a  




 of the
sound.
m A.3.2 Explain the Doppler effect by
reference to wavefront diagrams for
moving-detector and moving-source
situations.
m If the source and observer are  
 












 since the wavefronts will be closer to

one another (the relative speed of sound
compared to the observer is decreasing).
m If they are moving away from each other
the opposite applies.
m A.3.3 Apply the Doppler effect equations
for sound.

Object moving towards

source.

Object moving away

from source.
m A.3.4 Solve problems on the Doppler
effect for sound.
m A.3.5 Solve
problems on the
Doppler effect for
electromagnetic
waves using the
approximation
Ʀf=f*(v/c).
m A.3.6 Outline an
example in which the
Doppler effect is used
to measure speed.
m In |  





 so
called Doppler
velocimeter can send
out light beam bursts,
and measure the
Doppler shift in
wavelengths of
reflections from
particles moving with
the flow.
m A.4.1 Sketch the variation with angle of
diffraction of the relative intensity of light
diffracted at a single slit.
m A.4.2 Derive the formula lj=nj/b for the
position of the first minimum of the
diffraction pattern produced at a single
slit.
m A.4.3 Solve problems involving single-slit
diffraction.
m A.5.1 Sketch the variation with angle of
diffraction of the relative intensity of light
emitted by two point sources that has
been diffracted at a single slit.
m A.5.2 State the Rayleigh criterion for
images of two sources to be just
resolved.
The Rayleigh criterion states that two
sources will be just resolved when the
center of one peak is over the minimum
of the other.
m A.5.3 Describe the significance of resolution
in the development of devices such as CDs
and DVDs, the electron microscope and
radio telescopes.
m For CDs and DVDs a higher resolution will
increase the total amount of data that can
be stored on such a device. Electron
microscopes and radio telescopes favor
high resolution since it will allow objects to
be discerned more easily.
m A.5.4 Solve problems involving resolution.
m A.6.1 Describe what is meant by
polarized light.
G 

 is light whose waves only
oscillate along one plane.
m A.6.2 Describe polarization by reflection.
Reflected light is partially polarized such that
oscillations are (to a degree) parallel to the
surface of reflection, depending upon its
nature. Light reflected off non-metallic
substances is polarized such that a large
quantity of the wave oscillations occur
parallel to the water-surface.
m A.6.3 State and apply Brewster·s law.
m ‰


 
is an  


 




 with a particular
polarization 


 
 


 a surface, with no reflection.

m A.6.4 Explain the terms
polarizer and analyzer.
m G 
: a sheet of
material with molecular
structure that only allows
a specific orientation of
the electric field to go
through.
m 6  
: the second
polarizer when two is
placed in a row,
perpendicular to each
other (used for the
purpose of determining
whether light is polarized).
m A.6.5 Calculate the
intensity of a
transmitted beam of
polarized light using
Malus· law.
m r 
 states that
when a perfect
polarizer is placed in a
polarized beam of
light, the intensity, , of
the light that passes
through is given by:
m (Where lj = the angle
between polarization
direction and
polarizer.)
m A.6.6 Describe what is meant by an
optically active substance.
m 2 


| 

are
substances that rotate the plane of
polarization.
m A.6.7 Describe the
use of polarization in
the determination of
the concentration of
certain solutions.

ü The optical activity of a

substance depends upon its
molecular study. Therefore,
measures of the polarization-
properties of a solution (e.g.
sugar solution) can help to reveal
the molecular structure of the
solute.
m A.6.8 Outline
qualitatively how
polarization may be
used in stress analysis.
m For certain materials,
the degree to which the
substance becomes
optically active is
proportional to the
stress. Therefore
examination of the
polarization pattern
occurring through this
material will give
information as to its
level/state of stress.
m A.6.9 Outline qualitatively the action
of liquid-crystal displays (LCDs).

m A pixel of an LCD is a cell of aligned

liquid crystal between two
transparent plates, between a
crossed polarizer and analyzer (that is,
their axes of transmission are
perpendicular to each other). When
there is no electric field applied, the
plane of polarization twists as the light
passes through the crystals (they are
arranged as a helix); when it emerges,
it is polarized parallel to the
transmission axes of the analyzer, and
so exits the cell appearing light. When
an electric field is applied, the liquid
crystals are aligned with each other
such that when the light emerges, it is
still polarized perpendicular to the
analyzer, and thus is not transmitted.
This creates a dark spot.
m A.6.10 Solve problems involving the
polarization of light.
m *.1.1 Outline the nature of electromagnetic
(EM) waves.
m Light is an EM wave. The speed of light is
independent of the velocity of the source
of the light.
m Electromagnetic waves consists of
oscillating magnetic and electric fields that
are at 90 degrees to each other and in
phase. This can be visualized as two
transverse waves perpendicular to each
other, propagating in the same direction.
m *.1.2 Describe the different regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum.
m *.1.3 Describe what is meant by the
dispersion of EM waves.
m The splitting of white light into its
component colors is called dispersion.
m *.1.4 Describe the
dispersion of EM waves
in terms of the
dependence of
refractive index on
wavelength
m In the example above,
red is diffracted the
least, while violet the
most. This is because
the waves of lower
frequency are
diffracted less (have a
lower refractive index).
m Dispersion can occur
throughout the EM
spectrum not just for
light.
m *.1.5 Distinguish between transmission,
absorption and scattering of radiation.
m The wave is transmitted if it goes straight
through
m The wave is absorbed if the substances in
the medium (molecules in air) absorb its
energy. This energy can be re-emitted.
m The wave is scattered if it bounces of
particles in the medium into random
directions.
m Waves can actually be partially
transmitted/absorbed/scattered.
m *.1.6 Discuss examples of the transmission, absorption and
scattering of EM radiation.

m During the day: blue light is scattered by small dust

particles in the atmosphere. If there was no atmosphere,
the sky would be black.
m During sunsets: the light must travel through more
atmosphere. Blue light is scattered more than red light
(because it has a shorter wavelength) so the blue light is
scattered too much before it reaches you, therefore we
only see the red light.
m Other examples include; UV light being absorbed by the
ozone layer and infra-red radiation being absorbed by
greenhouse gases (causing global warming).
m *.1.7 Explain the terms
monochromatic and coherent.

m Monochromatic (mono=one,
chromatic=color) light is of a small
range of wavelengths, for
example from 500-501 nm. Light
bulbs are NOT monochromatic as
white light is a mixture of many
different frequencies.

m Coherent light means the waves

are linked together, that is all the
photons emitted are in phase with
one another.
m *.1.8 Identify laser light as a source of
coherent light.
m DUH?!
m *.1.9 Outline the mechanism for the production of
laser light.

m "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation".
m Stimulated emission, refers to a process where
'electrons that are in an excited state' emit photons
and drop to a lower state. This is caused by another
photon passing by the excited electron. By nature,
both photons are of the same wavelength and are in
phase.
m Lasers work by pumping lots of energy into the laser
such that over 50% of the electrons in a medium are
in an excited state. It then has two mirrors, one of
which lets 1% of photons through.
m *.1.10 Outline an
application of the
use of a laser.
m Lasers are used to
read information
on CDs by sensing
pits and bumps
that can be
interpreted and
changed into
sound.
m *.2.1 Define the terms principal axis, focal point,
focal length and linear magnification as applied to a
converging (convex) lens.
m G
 ? ? : the line which passes through the
centre of curvature and the centre of the refracting
surface
m -? 
 the point on the principal axis through
which a ray parallel to the principal axis passes after
refraction by the lens
m -?  
: the distance between the focal point
and the centre of the refracting surface.
m Linear Magnification: ? 
 
  ??
  
 ?


 Linear magnification = (image
size)/(object size)
m *.2.2 Define the power of a convex lens
and the dioptre.
m Power is the reciprocal of the focal
length of the lens, measured in dioptres.
m *.2.3 Define linear magnification.
m [
??
 ? 
: the ratio of the
height of the image to the height of its
object
m m = hi / ho - = -v/u
m *.2.4 Construct ray diagrams to locate
the image formed by a convex lens.
m *.2.5 Distinguish between a real image
and a virtual image.
m a?  ?: rays of light pass through the
image.
m £ 
?  ?: no rays pass through the
image/cannot be formed on a screen.
M

m *.2.6 Apply the

convention "real is
positive, virtual is
negative" to the thin
lens formula.
m (1/S1) + (1/S2) = (1/f)
m If S1 > f then it will most
likely be a real image.
m If S1 < f then it will most
likely be a virtual
image.
m *.2.7 Solve problems for a single convex
lens using the thin lens formula.
m *.2.8 Define the terms far point and near
point for the unaided eye.
m Œ?
: the position of or the
distance to the closest object that can
be brought into focus by the unaided
eye.
m -?
 the position of or the distance
to the furthest object that can be
brought into focus by the unaided eye.
m *.2.9 Define angular magnification.
m Angular magnification: ratio of the angle
subtended by the image at the eye with
the instrument to the angle subtended
by the object at the eye without the
instrument.
m *.2.10 Derive an expression for the
angular magnification of a simple
magnifying glass formed at the near
point and at infinity.
m *.2.11 Construct a ray diagram for a
compound microscope with final image
formed close to the near point of the
eye (normal adjustment).
m *.2.12 Construct a ray diagram for an
astronomical telescope with the final
image at infinity (normal adjustment).
m *.2.13 State the equation relating
angular magnification to the focal
lengths to lenses in an astronomical
telescope in normal adjustment.
m *.2.14 Solve problems involving the
compound and the astronomical
telescope.
m *.2.15 Explain the meaning
of spherical aberration and
of chromatic aberration as
produced by a single lens.
m Spherical aberration: rays far
from the lens axis do not
focus at the focal point.

Chromatic aberration: light

of different wavelengths has
different indices of refraction
and focuses at different
points.
m *.2.16 Describe how spherical
aberration in a lens may be reduced.
m The solution to reduce spherical
aberration in a lens is to use a
compound-lens systems (combination of
simple lenses) or to use only central part
of lens.
m *.2.17 Describe how chromatic
aberration in a lens may be reduced.
m The solution to reduce chromatic
aberration in a lens is to use an
achromatic doublet, made of lenses of
two different materials.
m *





  





|


 




|



 



m   



 










   






 
  
!
m 











 

  



 

|





m r 





















m *.3.2 Explain, by means of the principle of superposition, the
interference pattern produced by waves from two coherent
point sources.
m The ´superposition principleµ states that, for all
linear systems, the net response at a given place
and time caused by two or more stimuli is the sum
of the responses which would have been caused
by each stimulus individually.
m This is important to understand the concept of
superposition to determine if the sources were
monochromatic or coherent based on their
interference pattern and where the constructive
and destructive interference occurs.
m *.3.3 Outline a double-slit
experiment for light and draw
the intensity distribution of the
observed fringe pattern.
m The experiment, known as
Young·s Experiment, consists
of particle beams or coherent,
light waves passing through
two closely-spaced slits, after
which in many circumstances
they are found to interfere
with each other.
m *.3.4 Solve problems involving two-
source interference.
m *.4.1 Describe the effect on the double-
slit intensity distribution of increasing the
number of slits.
m As the number of slit increase
the bright fringes become
more concentrated and
areas of separation between
bright fringes become even
more dark. The total amount
of light stays the same but
with higher peaks and darker
dark fringes.
m *.4.2 Derive the diffraction grating formula for normal
incidence.
m Parallel rays of a monochromatic light of wavelength 1
are incident on a diffraction grating in which the slit
separation is . If the grating has Πlines per meter, the
grating spacing is given by: d = (1/Œ)
m Light from A must be in phase with light from B, and this
can only happen when the path difference is a whole
number of complete wavelengths (even number of
half-wavelengths).
So: AC =
, where
= 0, 1, 2, 3...
m AC = 
q«. and so 
q 
l
m *.4.3 Outline the use of a diffraction grating
to measure wavelengths.
m A diffraction grating can be used to split light into different
wavelengths with a high degree of accuracy, much more so
than glass prisms. A diffraction grating usually consists of a
piece of glass with very closely spaced lines ruled on it.
m The diffraction grating has the advantage over the double slit
method of measuring wavelength in that:
-the maxima are more sharply defined;
-the beam passes through more slits than two, so the intensity
is brighter;
-the angles are larger so that they can be measured with
greater precision.
m *.4.4 Solve problems involving a
diffraction grating.
A diffraction grating has 300 lines per mm. When it is illuminated normally by light of wavelength 530 nm,
what is the angle between the first and second order maxima? What is the highest order maximum that
can be obtained? Formula first:

q Þ 
q 


There are 300 lines per mm, so there are 3 105 lines per meter.

Þ = 1 ____ = 3.33 10-6 m

3 105 m-1
Now put the numbers into the equation to work out the angle of the first order maximum:


q 
l  1 x 530 10-9m = 0.159. Þ q = sin-1 (0.159) = 9.15o
 3.33 10-6 m
Now put the numbers into the equation to work out the angle of the second order maximum:


q 
l  2 530 10-9 m = 0.318. Þ q = sin-1 (0.318) = 18.54o
 3.33 10-6 m

So the angle between the two maxima is 18.54 o - 9.15 o = 


Now we can work out the highest order maximum by using sin q = 1:


1 =
l Þ
=  = 3.33
10-6 m = 6.3
 l 530 10-9 m

Since the orders of maxima have to be 
numbers, the maximum order has to be ".
m *.5.1 Outline the experimental arrangement for the
production of X-rays.
m X-rays are produced by accelerating electrons with a
high voltage and allowing them to collide with a
metal target. X-rays are produced when the electrons
are suddenly decelerated upon collision with the
metal target. If the bombarding electrons have
enough energy, they can knock an electron out of an
inner shell of the target metal atoms. Then electrons
from higher states drop down to fill the vacancy,
emitting x-ray photons with precise energies
determined by the electron energy levels.
m *.5.2 Draw and annotate a typical X-ray
spectrum.
m *.5.3 Explain the origins of the features of a characteristic X-ray
spectrum.
m Continuous features: As the incoming electrons collide with
the target atoms, they are decelerated. This deceleration
means that x-rays are emitted. The energy of the x-ray
photon depends on the energy lost in the collisions. The
maximum amount of energy that can be lost is al the initial
kinetic energy of the electrons. The maximum energy
available means that there is a maximum frequency of x-rays
produced. This corresponds to a minimum wavelength limit
shown on the graph.
m Characteristic features: In some circumstances, the collisions
between the incoming electrons and the target atoms can
cause electrons from the inner orbital of the target atom to
the promoted up to a higher energy levels. When these
electrons fall back down they emit x-rays of a particular
frequency which is fixed by the energy levels available.
m *.5.4 Solve problems
involving accelerating
potential difference and
minimum wavelength.
m What is the wavelength of the
X-ray of the K transition if the
ground state is at -81,000 eV,
and the next highest state is
at -24,000 eV?
 2.1 x 10-11 m
m What is the minimum high-
voltage acceleration that the
electrons need to produce
this energy X-ray?
 81 kV
m *.5.5 Explain how X-ray diffraction arises
from the scattering of X-rays in a crystal.
m Crystals have spacing between their
layers that is ideal for diffracting X-rays,
as can be seen in the diagram below.
m *.5.6 Derive the Bragg scattering
equation.

#$% &
m *.5.7 Outline how cubic crystals may be
used to measure the wavelength of X-rays.
m When X-rays are scattered from a crystal
lattice, peaks of scattered intensity are
observed which correspond to the
following conditions:
m - The angle of incidence = angle of
scattering.
- The path length difference is equal to
an integer number of wavelengths.
m *.5.8 Outline how X-rays may be used to determine the
structure of crystals.
m When X-rays are incident on a regular structure the majority
of X-rays will pass through the material. At particular angles
from the straight through direction, high intensity X-ray signals
are recorded.
These angles correspond to points of constructive
interference of the X-rays scattered from different planes of
atoms in the crystal.
m A regular crystal structure contains many different
lattice planes that can cause the interference so
typically a crystal structure will give rise to many
different constructive interference positions. A
powdered sample of crystal will contain every
orientation of these planes so the resulting X-ray
diffraction picture will contain circles rather than points.
m *.5.9 Solve problems involving the Bragg
equation.
m *.6.1 Explain the production of
interference fringes by a thin air wedge.
m There is a path difference between
the rays of light reflecting from the top
and from the bottom surfaces of the
wedge. This results in parallel lines of
equally spaced constructive and
destructive interference fringes.
m *.6.2 Explain how
wedge fringes can be
used to measure very
small separations.
m Since the eye has a
small aperture these
fringes, unless viewed at
near to normal
incidence (Ǘ=0), will
only be observed if the
film is very thin.
m *.6.3 Describe how thin-film interference is
used to test optical flats.
m A region that is designed to be
completely smooth is sometimes known
as an optical flat. Wedge films can be
used to test optical surfaces for flatness.
If a wedge is made of two surfaces and
one has irregularities, but the other is
smooth the pattern will appear irregular
in shape. The irregular surface can then
be polished until the pattern appears
equally spaced and of equal thickness.
m *.6.4 Solve problems involving wedge films.
m A wedge film is made by wrapping a single turn
of sticky-tape about one end of a microscope
slide and placing another slide on top of it. The
microscope slides are 4.8cm long and a
wavelength of the light 500nm. The fringe
spacing is measured at 0.8mm. Determine the
thickness of the sticky-tape.
m In a length of 5cm there will be 4.8/0.08=60
fringes. The 60th fringe is formed where the
wedge has a thickness t, the thickness of the
sticky-tape. Since the wedge encloses air (n=1).
2nt=mß

 







m 


 
m *.6.5 State the condition for light to undergo
either a phase change of Ǒ, or no phase
change, on reflection from an interface.
m When light passes from a substance with a
lower index to a higher index, which causes
the object to reflect off of the material with a
higher index.
m *.6.6 Describe how a source of light gives
rise to an interference pattern when the
light is reflected at both surfaces of a
parallel film.
m A phase change can take place at a
reflection interface causing the inversion
of the wave, but it does not always
happen. It depends on the media
involved. When analyzing the phase
changes there are conditions for
constructive and destructive
interference.
m *.6.7 State the conditions for constructive
and destructive interference.
m Constructive interference occurs when
the waves are in phase.
m Destructive interference occurs when
the waves are out of phase.
m *.6.8 Explain the formation of colored fringes
when white light is reflected from thin films,
such as oil and soap films.
m If white light is used then the situation
becomes more complex. Provided the
thickness of the film is small, then one or
two colors may reinforce along a
direction in which others cancel. The
appearance of the film will be bright
colors, such as can be seen when looking
at an oil film on the surface of water or
soap bubbles.
m *.6.9 Describe the difference between
fringes formed by a parallel film and a
wedge film.
m For a parallel film, the fringes are of equal
inclination, that is they form arcs of a
circle whose center is located at the end
of a perpendicular drawn from the eye to
the surface of the film.
m For a wedge film, the fringes are parallel
and of equal thickness.
m *.6.10 Describe applications of parallel thin films.
m The design of non-reflecting radar coatings for military aircraft.
If the thickness of the extra contain is designed so that radar
signals destructively interfere when they reflect from both
surfaces, then no signal will be reflected and an aircraft could
go undetected.
m Measurements of thickness of oil slicks caused by spillage.
Measurements of the wavelengths of electromagnetic signals
that give constructive and destructive interference (at known
angles) allow the thickness of the oil to be calculated.
m Design of non-reflecting surfaces for lenses (blooming), solar
panels, and solar cells, A strong reflection at any of these
surfaces could reduce the amount of energy being usefully
transmitted. A think surface film can be added so that
destructive interference takes place for a typical wavelength
and thus maximum transmittance takes place at his
wavelength.
m *.6.11 Solve problems involving parallel
films.