ADJACENCY AND INCIDENCE

Adjacency

Definitions: Let v and w be vertices of a graph. If v and w

are joined by an edge e, then v and w are said to be
adjacent.
Let G be a loopless graph with vertex set
V(G) = v1,…,vn and edge set E(G)= e1,…,em .
The adjacency matrix of G,written A(G), is the n-by-n
matrix in which entry ai,j is the number of edges in G
whith endpoints vi,vj .
An adjacency matrix is determined by a vertex ordering.
Every adjacency matrix is symmetric( ai,j=aj,i for all i,j). An
adjacency matrix of a simple graph G has entries 0 or 1,
with 0s on the diagonal. The degree of v is the sum of
 Example:

1 2
  col 1 col 2 col 3 col 4

row 1 0 1 0 1

row 2 1 0 1 2

row 3 0 1 0 1
4 3
row 4 1 2 1 0

On the left -hand side we have a graph with four vertices,and on

the right- hand side we have a 4*4 matrix. Graph has no loops,
diagonal is 0, also that the matrix is symmetrical about this main
diagonal.
Incidence

if vertex v is an endpoint of edge e, then v and e are

incident. The incidence matrix I(G) is the n-by-m matrix
in which entry mi,j is 1 if vi is an endpoint of ej and
otherwise is 0.
The degree of vertex v(in a loopless graph) is the
number of incident edges.
definition: let G be a graph without loops, with n vertices
labeled 1,2,3,….,n and m edges labeled 1,2,3,…,m. The
incidence matrix I(G) is the n*m matrix in which the entry
in row i and column j is 1 if vertex i is incident with edge
j,and 0 otherwise.
 1 1
1 1
2 2
1 1 edges
1 1
1
11 21
1 1
1 1   col 1 col 2 col 3 col 4 col 5 col 6

1 5 1
1
41 2 11 row 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

1
2 2
6 1
1 1 row 2 1 1 0 0 1 1
1
1 1
31
row 3 0 1 1 0 0 0
41 1
1 3
1 1 row 4 0 0 1 1 1 1

1 1
1 1
vertex
1 1
1 1
Isomorphic Graphs

Definition:Two graphs G and H are isomorhic if

H can be obtained from G by relabeling the
vertices- that is, if there is a one-to-one
correspondence between the vertices of G and
those of H, such that the number of edges
joining any pair of vertices in G is equal to the
number of edges joining the corresponding
pair of vertices in H.
Finding isomorphisms

•G and H must have the same degree

•The vertex number of G is the same as in H
• The edge number of G is the same as in H
•We can also say the adjacency relation of matrix is
the same. Note that in checking whether or not two
matrices are the same, we can exchange rows and
columns.
Example: Are the following two graphs isomorphic?
u1
u2 v1 v2

u3 v3 v4
u4

Yes. in each of the graphs have the same number of

wertex(4) and, edges(4). Degree of vertex 2.

  u1 u2 u3 u4   v1 v2 v3 v4

u1 0 1 1 0 v1 0 0 1 1

u2 1 0 0 1 v2 0 0 1 1

u3 1 0 0 1 v3 1 1 0 0

u4 0 1 1 0
v4 1 1 0 0

Exchange u2 and u4 ( row and columns)

Subgraph

Definition: A subgraph of a graph G is a graph H such that V(H) ⊆ V(G) and

E(H) ⊆ E(G) and the assigment of endpoints to edges in H is the same as in G. We
then write H⊆ G and say that “ G contains H”.

Edge and Vertex Deletion

Given a graph G, there are two natural ways of deriving smaller graphs
from G. İf e is an edge of G, we may obtain a graph on m-1 edges by
deleting e from G but leaving the vertices and the remaining edges intact.
The resulting graph is denoted by G\e. Similarly, if v is a vertex of G, we
may obtain a graph on n-1 vetices by deleting form G the vertex v together
with all the edges incident with v. The resulting graph is denoted by G - v.
Exp: Edge-deleted and vertex-deleted subgraphs of the Peterson graph

G G\e G-v
The graphs G\e and G – v defined above are examples of subgraphs of G.
We call G\e an edge-deleted subgraph , and G – v a vertex-deleted
subgraph. Note that the null graph is a subgraph of every graph.

Paths, Cycles, and Trails

Definition: A walk of length k in a graph G is a succession of k edges of G

of the form
uv,vw,wx,….,yz
We denote this walk by uvwx..yz,and refer to it as a walk between u and
z.

x z

u v y
We do not require all the edges or vertices in a walk to be different. For
example, in the following graph

v w

x
u

z y

uvwxywvzzy is a walk of length 9 between u and y,which includes the edge

vw twice,and the vertices v,w,y and z twice.
Definition: If all the edges(but not necessarily all the vertices) of a walk are
different,then the walk is called a trail. If, in addition, all the vertices are
different,then the trail is called a path.
İn the above diagram, the walk vzzywxy is a trail which is not a path(since
the vertices y and z both occur twice),whereas the walk vwxyz has no
repeated vertices,and is therefore a path.
Definition:A closed walk in a graph G is a succession of edges of G of the
form
uv,vw,vx,…,yz,zu
If all these edges are different, then the walk is called a closed trail. If, in
addition, the vertices u,v,w,x,..,y,z are all different,then the trail is called a
cycle.
In the above graph, the closed walk uvwyvzu is a closed trail which is not a
cycle(since the vertex v occurs twice),whereas the closed trail zz, vwxyv, and
vwxyzv are all cycles.
Definition: a graph G is connected if there is a path in G between any given
pair of vertices, and disconnected otherwise. Every disconnected graph can
be split up into a number of connected subgraphs,called components.

connected disconnected
Complete Graphs

A complete graph is a graph in which every two distinct verticesare joined

by exactly one edge. The complete graph with n vertices is denotedby Kn .
The graph Kn is regular of degree n-1,and therefore has ½ n(n-1) edges.

K1 K2 K3

or

K4 K5
 Null Graphs

A null graph is a graph containing no edges. The null graph with n vertices
is denoted by Nn .Note that Nn is regular of degree 0.

N1 N2 N3 N4

Cycle Graphs

A cycle graph is a graph consisting of single cycle. The cycle graph with n
vertices is is denoted by Cn .

C1 C3 C4 C5
C2
Path Graps
A path graph is a graph consisting of a single path. The path graph with n
vertices is denoted by Pn .

P1 P2 P4
P3

Note that Pn has n-1 edges, and can be obtained from the cycle graph Cn
by removing any edge.

Wheel Graphs
We obtain the wheel Wn when we add an additinal vertex to the cycle Cn ,
for n>=3,and connect this new vertex to each of the n vertices in Cn ,by
new edges.

W3 W4 W5
Bipartite Graphs
A Bipartite Graph is a graph whose vertex-set can be split into sets A and B
in such a way that each edge of the graph joins a vertex in A to a vertex in B.
We can distinguish the vertices in A from those in B by drawing the former in
black and the latter in white,so that each edge is incident with a black vertex
and a white vertex .
A
Black
vertices

White vertices

B
Complete Bipartite Graphs
A Complete Bipartite Graph is a bipartite graphs in which each black vertex is
joined to each white vertex by exactly one edge. The complete bipartite graph
with r black vertices and s white vertices is denoted by Kr,s . A complete
bipartite graph of the form K1,5 is called a star graph. Kr,s has r+s vertices(r
vertices of degree s,and s vertices of degree r) and rs edges. Note also that
Kr,s = Ks,r ; it is usual,but not necessary,to put the smaller of r and s first.

K1,5 K2,2 K2,4

K2,4 K3,3
Cube graphs

The n-cube, denoted by Qn , is the graph that has vertices representing the 2n
bit sitrings of length n. Two vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit strings
that they represent differ in exactly one bit. 110
111
10 11
100
101

010

0 1 011

001
000
00 01

Q1 Q3
Q2
SOME APPLICATIONS OF SPECIAL TYPES OF GRAPHS

Local Area Networks:

Some of local area networks are based on a star topology, where all devices
are connected to a central control device. A local area network can be
represented using a complete bipartite graf K1,n . Messages are sent from
device to device through the central control device.

Bipartite graph K1,8 . Star topology

Other local area networks are based on a ring topology, where each
device is connected to exactly two others. local area networks with a ring
topology are modeled using n-cycles, Cn . Messages are sent from
device to device around the cycle until the intended recipient of a
message is reached.

Cycle graph Cn . ring topology

Some local area networks use a hybrid of these two topologies. Messages may be
sent around the ring, or through a central device. This redundancy makes the network
more reliable. Local area networks with this redundancy redundancy can be modeled
using wheels Wn .

Wheel graph Wn . Hybrid topology

CHEMISTRY

A chemical molecule consist of a number of atoms linked by chemical bonds.

For example, a molecule of water ( H2O) consist of an axygen atom bonded to
two hydrogen atoms,and may be represented by the diagram

H O H
More complicated examples are given by the molecules methane (CH4),
ethanol (C2 H5OH) and ethene (C2 H4), that may be represented by diagrams
H H H

H C H H C C O H

H H H
methane ethanol
The molecule ethanol (C2 H5OH) can be represented by the following graph:
In such a graph, the degree of each vertex is simply the valency of the
corresponding atom- the carbon vertices have degree 4, the oxygen vertex has
degree 2, and the hydrogen vertices have degree 1. diagrams of the above
type were first used in 1864 to represent the arrangement of atoms in a
molecule.
( isomerism-molecules with the same chemical formula but different chemical
properties) for example, the molecules n-butan and 2-methyl propane both
have the chemical formula (C4 H10); note the different ways in which the atoms
are arranged inside the molecule:

H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H H

n-butan (C4 H10) graph n-butan(C4 H10)

 H

H C H
H H

H C C C H

H H H

2-methyl propane (C4 H10) Graph 2-methyl propane (C4 H10)