|



|


UET, Taxila
Lecture No. (4&5)
 |

  
 

u order to u dersta d the

various approaches to
modeli
fracture, fati
ue
a d failure, it is helpful to
review briefly the features
a d mecha isms of failure i
solids.
 Failure under monotonic
loading
uf you test a sample of a y
material u der u i-axial
te sio it will eve tually
fail. The features of the
failure depe d o several
factors, i cludi

-The materials i volved
a d their micro-sctructure
2-The applied stress state
3- Loadi
rate
4-Temperature
5-Ambie t e viro me t
(water vapor; or prese ce
of corrosive e viro me ts)
 ¢

 

   

|aterials are ormally

classified loosely as
either `brittle¶ or
`ductile¶ depe di
o
the characteristic
features of the failure.
 ¢

 |

Examples of `brittle¶
materials i clude

lasses,
ceramics (Oxides, Carbides
& Nitrides)
a d Cast uro
  
  

 


-Very little plastic flow

occurs i the specime
prior to failure;
2-The two sides of the
fracture surface fit to
ether
very well after failure.
3- The fracture surface appears
faceted ± you ca make out
i dividual
rai s a d atomic
pla es.
4- u ma y materials, fracture
occurs alo
certai
crystallo
raphic pla es. u
other materials, fracture
occurs alo

rai bou daries
 

 |

4 Examples of `ductile¶
4 Ti a d lead
4 FCC metals at all
temperatures;
4 BCC metals at hi
h
temperatures;
4 polymers at relatively hi
h
temperature.
 Features of a `ductile¶
fracture are
4 Exte sive plastic flow occurs

i the material prior to

fracture.
4 There is usually evide ce of

co siderable ecki
i the

specime
4Fracture surfaces
do ¶t fit to
ether.
4The fracture surface
has a dimpled
appeara ce ± you ca
see little holes
 Complex |aterials

Of course, some materials

have such a complex
microstructure (especially
composites) that it¶s hard
to classify them as
e tirely brittle or e tirely
ductile.
u
 
 

Brittle fracture occurs as a result

of a si
le crack, propa
ati

throu
h the specime . |ost
materials co tai pre-existi

cracks, i which case fracture is
i itiated whe a lar
e crack i a
re
io of hi
h te sile stress
starts to
row.
 u

  

 



þuctile fracture occurs as a

result of the ucleatio ,

rowth a d coalesce ce of
voids i the material
Failure is co trolled by the
rate of ucleatio of the voids
a d their rate of
rowth.
^
 

   

 

 
¢

 


þoes material fail
u der stresses lower
tha yield stre
th?
The a swer is
yes
º This chapter would ot be
complete, therefore,
without refere ce to certai
loadi
co ditio s u der
which materials ca fail at
stresses much less tha the
yield stress, amely creep
a d fati
ue.
 Ä 

u the precedi

sectio s it has bee
su

ested that failure
of materials occurs
whe the ultimate
stre
ths have bee
exceeded.
  
 
 

Creep is the
radual

i crease of plastic
strai i a material
with time at co sta t
load.
 Ä 

 

º At elevated temperatures
some materials (most
metals) are susceptible to
this phe ome o a d eve
u der the co sta t load
me tio ed, strai s ca
i crease co ti ually u til
fracture.
 

 
 

This form of fracture

º
is particularly
releva t to turbi e
blades, uclear
reactors, fur aces,
rocket motors, etc.
@ 

 
 
    
The
e eral form of
º
the strai versus
time
raph or p


p 
is show for
two typical operati

co ditio s.
  
 

u each case the

º
curve ca be
co sidered to exhibit
four pri cipal
features
º (a) A „ „
„
„ due
to the i itial applicatio of
load. u most cases this
would be a elastic strai .
º (b) A  „ p



„ , duri
which the

creep rate (slope of the

raph) dimi ishes.
º (c) A 
p  p


re
io , whe the creep
rate is se sibly low
(Co sta t).

º (d) 


„ p



re
io , duri
which the
creep rate accelerates to
fi al fracture.
   
 
º ut is clearly vital that a
material which is
susceptible to creep effects
should o ly be subjected to
stresses which keep it i
the seco dary (strai
ht
li e) re
io throu
hout its
service life.
This e ables the
º
amou t of creep
exte sio to be
estimated a d
allowed i desi
.
 


þ
„ „
„  

„

º

„
is the failure of a

material u der fluctuati

stresses each of which is
believed to produce
mi ute amou ts of plastic
strai .
 

  


º Fati
ue is particularly
importa t i compo e ts
subjected to repeated a d
ofte rapid load
fluctuatio s, e.
. aircraft
compo e ts, turbi e
blades, vehicle
suspe sio s, etc.
    

 

ºFati
ue behaviour of
materials is usually
described by a

„
„
or  p 

i which the umber of stress
cycles N to produce failure
is plotted a
ai st S.
A typical  
º
curve for mild
steel is show i
ext fi
ure
^
Ä
 
 

The particularly releva t

feature of this curve is the
limiti
stress ^ si ce it is
assumed that stresses below
this value will ot produce
fati
ue failure however ma y
cycles are applied, i.e. there
is „ „ „

„

    


u the simplest
º
desi
cases,
therefore, there is a
aim to keep all
stresses below this
limiti
level.
 ^ 

`

º ` 

º þetermi e the stress i each sectio of
the bar show i ext Fi
ure whe
subjected to a axial te sile load of 20
kN. The ce tral sectio is 30 mm square
cross-sectio ; the other portio s are of
circular sectio , their diameters bei

i dicated.
º What will be the total exte sio of the
bar? For the bar material E = 20GN/m2.
 
^

^
 


^
 


^
 


º Now the exte sio of a bar ca always
be writte i terms of the stress i the
bar si ce
 ` ample 2
(a) A 25 mm diameter bar is subjected
to a axial te sile load of 00 kN.
U der the actio of this load a
 
au
e le
th is fou d to
exte d by the dista ce
0. 0-3 mm.
þetermi e the modulus of elasticity for
the bar material.
^olution (a)
º (b) uf, i order to reduce wei
ht
whilst keepi
the exter al
diameter co sta t, the bar is
bored axially to produce a
cyli der of u iform thick ess,
what is the maximum diameter
of bore possible,
ive that the
maximum allowable stress is
240|N/m2?
º The load ca be assumed to
remai co sta t at 00 kN.
 ^  
º Let the required bore
diameter be µd¶ mm; the
cross-sectio al area of
the bar will the be
reduced to
But this stress is
º
restricted to a
maximum allowable
value of 240 |N/m2.
The maximum
º
bore possible is
thus ÿ

º(c) What will be the cha
e i
the outside diameter of the bar
u der the limiti
stress quoted
i (b)?
Where E =  

a d Î = 0.3
 ^  
The cha
e i the
outside diameter of
the bar will be
obtai ed from the
lateral strai ,
 u 

 
V

å

 ` 

º The coupli
show i ext
Fi
ure is co structed from
steel of recta
ular cross-
sectio a d is desi
ed to
tra smit a te sile force of
50 kN. uf the bolt is of  
mm diameter calculate
º (a) the shear stress i
the bolt;
º (b) the direct stress i

the plate;
º (c) the direct stress i
the forked e d of the
coupli
.
 ^ 
 ^olution
º (a) The bolt is subjected
to double shear, te di

to shear it as show i
Fi
ure. There is thus
twice the area of the
bolt resisti
the shear
a d from equatio 
M
º (c) The force i the coupli
is
shared by the forked e d
pieces, each bei
subjected to
a direct stress
°