Unit one

CDMA History and Evolution

Contents
 History of CDMA
 Evolution path of CDMA

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 History of CDMA
• CDMA was developed originally by
Qualcomm and enhanced by Ericsson.
• CDMA is characterized by high capacity
and small cell radius, employing spread-
spectrum technology and a special coding
scheme.

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 History…
• CDMA was adopted by the Telecommunications
Industry Association (TIA) in 1993.
• The first CDMA cellular mobile communication system
was commissioned in Hong Kong in 1995.
• In September 1998, only three years after the first
commercial deployment , there were 16 million
subscribers on cdmaOne systems worldwide.

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 History…
• By May 2001 there were 35 million
subscribers on cdmaOne systems
worldwide and there are now 60 million.
• QUALCOMM owns a substantial portfolio
of CDMA patents.

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 Evolution of
Mobile Communications System

AMPS:
AMPS:Advanced
TACS:
AdvancedMobile
TACS:Total
MobilePhone
TotalAccess
PhoneSystem
System
AccessCommunication
CommunicationSystem
System
1
GPRS:
GPRS:General
GeneralPacket
PacketRadio
RadioServices
Services
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 Evolution of CDMA
2G 2.5G 3G

cdmaOne CDMA2000
CDMA2000 CDMA2000
CDMA2000 CDMA2000
CDMA2000
IS-95-A 1X 1X
Rel. 0 1xEVDO
1xEV-Rel. 0 1xEV DO
1xEV- DORev.A
Rel
IS-95-B • 2.4 Mbps PD •
• Voice • High Capacity Voice •
• RF Backward Comp. •
Korea • 153 kbps PD • Backward Comp.
•14.4 kbps CSD Japan
• RF Backward CDMA2000 CDMA2000 FL 3.09Mbps PD
Comp. 1XRel.A
Rel A CDMA2000
RL 1.8 Mbps PD
• Voice 1xEVDV Rel D
• 64 kbps Packet • 307.2 kbps Packet
• Backward Comp. • FL 3.09 Mbps PD
• RF Backward
Compatible • RL 1.8 Mbps PD
• Backward Comp.

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 Unit Two
Basic Principles in CDMA

Contents
 Spread spectrum technology principles
Speech Coding Technology
Channel Encoding Technology

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 Defining Our Terms
• CDMA Channel or CDMA Carrier or CDMA Frequency
– Duplex channel made of two 1.25 MHz-wide bands of electromagnetic spectrum, one
for Base Station to Mobile Station communication (called the FORWARD LINK or the
DOWNLINK) and another for Mobile Station to Base Station communication (called
the REVERSE LINK or the UPLINK)
– In 800 Cellular these two simplex 1.25 MHz bands are 45 MHz apart
– In 1900 MHz PCS they are 80 MHz apart CDMA CHANNEL
• CDMA Forward Channel CDMA CDMA
Reverse Forward
Channel Channel
– 1.25 MHz Forward Link 1.25 MHz 1.25 MHz

• CDMA Reverse Channel

– 1.25 MHz Reverse Link 45 or 80 MHz

• CDMA Code Channel

– Each individual stream of 0’s and 1’s contained in either the CDMA Forward Channel
or in the CDMA Reverse Channel
– Code Channels are characterized (made unique) by mathematical codes
– Code channels in the forward link: Pilot, Sync, Paging and Forward Traffic channels
– Code channels in the reverse link: Access and Reverse Traffic channels
 Spread Spectrum In CDMA
• The spread spectrum communications
technology is an information transmission
mode.
• The frequency bandwidth, occupied by
signals, is far larger than the minimum
bandwidth required for the information to
be transmitted.
 Spread Spectrum In CDMA
• The spread width of the frequency band is
realized by means of coding and
modulation.
• It is independent with the transmitted
information data.
 Spread Spectrum In CDMA…
ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION
Spread Data Stream
Input Recovered
Data Data

Spreading Spreading
Sequence Sequence

Definition: Spread spectrum techniques ,employ a

transmission bandwidth that is several orders of magnitude
greater than the minimum required signal bandwidth.
Sender combines data with a fast spreading sequence,
transmits spread data stream
Receiver intercepts the stream, uses same spreading
sequence to extract original data
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Spread Spectrum…
SHANON Formula

C=B*log2(1+S/N)
Where,
C is capacity of channel, b/s
B is signal bandwidth, Hz
S is average power for signal, W
N is average power for noise, W

ItItisisthe
thebasic
basicprinciple
principleand
andtheory
theory
for
forspread
spreadspectrum
spectrumcommunications.
communications.

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 Spread Spectrum…

Direct Sequence CDMA

Time Frequency
User 1

+ Code 1

= Composite

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 CDMA a Spread-Spectrum
System
TRADITIONAL COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
Spread Spectrum
• Traditional technologies try to
Slow
Narrowband
Signal Slow
squeeze the signal into the
Information
Sent
Information
Recovered minimum required bandwidth
TX RX
• Direct-Sequence Spread
spectrum systems mix their
SPREAD-SPECTRUM SYSTEM input data with a fast spreading
Wideband Signal sequence and transmit a
Slow Slow wideband signal
Information Information

• The spreading sequence is

Sent Recovered
TX RX

independently regenerated at
Fast
Spreading
Fast
Spreading
the receiver and mixed with the
Sequence Sequence
incoming wideband signal to
Spread Spectrum Payoff:
recover the original data
Processing Gain
 Spread Spectrum…

MAT
HAM H Power is “Spread” Over a Larger Bandwidth
ME R

MATH
HAMMER

30 KHz
1.25 MHz

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 Spread Spectrum…

Many code channels are individually

“spread” and then added together to
create a “composite signal”

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 De-spreading…
ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION
Spread Data Stream
(Base Band + Spreading Sequence)
Input Recovered
Data Data
(Base Band) (Base Band)

Spreading Spreading
Sequence Sequence

• Any data bit stream can be combined with a spreading sequence

• The resulting signal can be de-spread and the data stream
recovered if the original spreading sequence is available and
properly synchronized
• After de-spreading, the original data stream is recovered.
 Multiple codes

ORIGINATING SITE DESTINATION

Spread-Spectrum Chip Streams
X+A X+A+B X+A+B+C X+A+B X+A

Input Recovered
Data Data
X X

Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading Spreading

Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence Sequence
A B C C B A
• Multiple spreading sequences can be applied in succession and
then reapplied in opposite order to recover the original data stream.
• The spreading sequences can have different desired properties.
• All spreading sequences originally used must be available in proper
synchronization at the recovering destination.
 Analogy…
Shipping Receiving

FedEx

FedEx
Data Mailer Mailer Data

• Whether in shipping and receiving or in CDMA, packaging is

extremely important!
• Cargo is placed inside “nested” containers for protection and to
allow addressing.
• The shipper packs in a certain order, and the receiver unpacks
in the reverse order.
• CDMA “containers” are spreading codes.
 Spreading Codes in CDMA

Spreading
Spreadingcode
codeselection
selectionisisthe
thekey
keyof
ofspread
spreadSpectrum
Spectrum
modulation!
modulation!

• Spreading code chip speed is 1.2288Mc/s.

• Spreading codes used:
 Forward link—Walsh code & Short PN
 Reverse link—Long PN
 Walsh Code Definition
•• The
The Walsh
Walsh function
function isis named
named afterafter Walsh,
Walsh, the the
mathematician
mathematician who who proved
proved itit an
an orthogonal
orthogonal function
function
in
in 1923.
1923.
•• Walsh
Walsh code
code isis an
an orthogonal
orthogonal square
square matrix.
matrix. ItIt isis just
just
composed
composed of
of +1(0)
+1(0) and
and –1(1).
–1(1).

0 0 0 0
Hn Hn
0
0 0 0 1 0 1 H 2n = ___

H10 1 H2 0 0 1 H41
Hn Hn

0 1 1 0

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 Walsh Codes
• 64 Sequences, each 64 chips long WALSH CODES
# ---------------------------------- 64-Chip Sequence ------------------------------------------

– A chip is a binary digit (0 or 1)

0 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
1 0101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101010101
2 0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011
3 0110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110
4 0000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111

• Each Walsh Code is Orthogonal to

5 0101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010
6 0011110000111100001111000011110000111100001111000011110000111100
7 0110100101101001011010010110100101101001011010010110100101101001
8 0000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000000011111111
9 0101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101010110101010

all other Walsh Codes

10 0011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011001111001100
11 0110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110011010011001
12 0000111111110000000011111111000000001111111100000000111111110000
13 0101101010100101010110101010010101011010101001010101101010100101
14 0011110011000011001111001100001100111100110000110011110011000011

– This means that it is possible to

15 0110100110010110011010011001011001101001100101100110100110010110
16 0000000000000000111111111111111100000000000000001111111111111111
17 0101010101010101101010101010101001010101010101011010101010101010
18 0011001100110011110011001100110000110011001100111100110011001100

recognize and therefore extract a

19 0110011001100110100110011001100101100110011001101001100110011001
20 0000111100001111111100001111000000001111000011111111000011110000
21 0101101001011010101001011010010101011010010110101010010110100101
22 0011110000111100110000111100001100111100001111001100001111000011
23 0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011001011010010110

particular Walsh code from a

24 0000000011111111111111110000000000000000111111111111111100000000
25 0101010110101010101010100101010101010101101010101010101001010101
26 0011001111001100110011000011001100110011110011001100110000110011
27 0110011010011001100110010110011001100110100110011001100101100110

mixture of other Walsh codes

28 0000111111110000111100000000111100001111111100001111000000001111
29 0101101010100101101001010101101001011010101001011010010101011010
30 0011110011000011110000110011110000111100110000111100001100111100
31 0110100110010110100101100110100101101001100101101001011001101001

which are “filtered out” in the

32 0000000000000000000000000000000011111111111111111111111111111111
33 0101010101010101010101010101010110101010101010101010101010101010
34 0011001100110011001100110011001111001100110011001100110011001100
35 0110011001100110011001100110011010011001100110011001100110011001
36 0000111100001111000011110000111111110000111100001111000011110000

process
37 0101101001011010010110100101101010100101101001011010010110100101
38 0011110000111100001111000011110011000011110000111100001111000011
39 0110100101101001011010010110100110010110100101101001011010010110
40 0000000011111111000000001111111111111111000000001111111100000000
41 0101010110101010010101011010101010101010010101011010101001010101

– Two same-length binary strings

42 0011001111001100001100111100110011001100001100111100110000110011
43 0110011010011001011001101001100110011001011001101001100101100110
44 0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111111000000001111
45 0101101010100101010110101010010110100101010110101010010101011010

are orthogonal if the result of

46 0011110011000011001111001100001111000011001111001100001100111100
47 0110100110010110011010011001011010010110011010011001011001101001
48 0000000000000000111111111111111111111111111111110000000000000000
49 0101010101010101101010101010101010101010101010100101010101010101
50 0011001100110011110011001100110011001100110011000011001100110011

XORing them has the same

51 0110011001100110100110011001100110011001100110010110011001100110
52 0000111100001111111100001111000011110000111100000000111100001111
53 0101101001011010101001011010010110100101101001010101101001011010
54 0011110000111100110000111100001111000011110000110011110000111100

number of 0s as 1s
55 0110100101101001100101101001011010010110100101100110100101101001
56 0000000011111111111111110000000011111111000000000000000011111111
57 0101010110101010101010100101010110101010010101010101010110101010
58 0011001111001100110011000011001111001100001100110011001111001100
59 0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100110011010011001
60 0000111111110000111100000000111111110000000011110000111111110000
61 0101101010100101101001010101101010100101010110100101101010100101
62 0011110011000011110000110011110011000011001111000011110011000011
63 0110100110010110100101100110100110010110011010010110100110010110
 Walsh Codes
EXAMPLE:
• Correlation of Walsh Code #23 with Walsh Code #59
#23
0110100101101001100101101001011001101001011010011
001011010010110
#59
0110011010011001100110010110011010011001011001100
110011010011001
XOR
0000111111110000000011111111000011110000000011111
111000000001111

• Correlation Results: 32 1’s, 32 0’s: Orthogonal!!

 0
0123
0000
4567
0000
Walsh Code Table
11
8901
0000
1111
2345
0000
1111
6789
0000
2222
0123
0000
2222
4567
0000
2233
8901
0000
3333
2345
0000
3333
6789
0000
4444
0123
0000
4444
4567
0000
4455
8901
0000
5555
2345
0000
5555
6789
0000
6666
0123
0000
1 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101
2 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011
3 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110
4 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111
5 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010
6 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100
7 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001
8 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111
9 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010
10 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100
11 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001
12 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000
13 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101
14 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011
15 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110
16 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111
17 0101 0101 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 0101 0101 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010
18 0011 0011 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100 0011 0011 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100
19 0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001
20 0000 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000
21 0101 1010 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101 0101 1010 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101
22 0011 1100 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011 0011 1100 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011
23 0110 1001 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 0110 1001 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110
24 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000
25 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 0101 0101 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 0101 0101
26 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100 0011 0011 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100 0011 0011
27 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 0110 0110
28 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111
29 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101 0101 1010 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101 0101 1010
30 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011 0011 1100 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011 0011 1100
31 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 0110 1001 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 0110 1001
32 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111
33 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010
34 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100
35 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001
36 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000
37 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101
38 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011
39 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110
40 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000
41 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101
42 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011
43 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110
44 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111
45 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010
46 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100
47 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001
48 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000
49 0101 0101 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 1010 0101 0101 0101 0101
50 0011 0011 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 1100 0011 0011 0011 0011
51 0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 1001 0110 0110 0110 0110
52 0000 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111
53 0101 1010 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 1010 0101 0101 1010 0101 1010
54 0011 1100 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 1100 0011 0011 1100 0011 1100
55 0110 1001 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 1001 0110 0110 1001 0110 1001
56 0000 0000 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000 0000 1111 1111
57 0101 0101 1010 1010 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 0101 0101 1010 1010
58 0011 0011 1100 1100 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 0011 0011 1100 1100
59 0110 0110 1001 1001 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 0110 0110 1001 1001
60 0000 1111 1111 0000 1111 0000 0000 1111 1111 0000 0000 1111 0000 1111 1111 0000
61 0101 1010 1010 0101 1010 0101 0101 1010 1010 0101 0101 1010 0101 1010 1010 0101
62 0011 1100 1100 0011 1100 0011 0011 1100 1100 0011 0011 1100 0011 1100 1100 0011
63 0110 1001 1001 0110 1001 0110 0110 1001 1001 0110 0110 1001 0110 1001 1001 0110
 Walsh Code…
• A Mobile Station receives a Forward
Channel from a sector in a Base Station.
• The Forward Channel carries a composite
signal of up to 64 forward code channels.
• Some code channels are traffic channels
and others are overhead channels.
• A set of 64 mathematical codes is needed
to differentiate the 64 possible forward
code channels.

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 Walsh Code…
• The Walsh code is also used to perform
orthogonal modulation on the reverse link.
• Its use is chanalization.
• Forward channels include Pilot, Sync,
Paging, and Forward Traffic channels.
 Walsh Code…
• Pilot channel is assigned Walsh code 0.
• Sync channel is assigned Walsh code 32
• Paging channel can be assigned Walsh
codes 1 to 7.
• Forward traffic channels are assigned
random Walsh codes from the 55 (or 61
from paging channels) which are left.
Short PN
• If we now have two BTS transmitting a set of
forward code channels each, how can we
identify between the signals of the two?
• For this purpose we use the Short PN
Sequence.
• The short PN is also used for digital modulation;
QPSK modulation on the forward link and
OQPSK on the reverse link.
 Short PN Sequences
The two Short PN Sequences, I and
Q, are 32,768 chips long 32,768 chips long
26 2/3 ms.
(75 repetitions in 2 sec.)
• Together, they can be
considered a two-dimensional I
binary “vector” with distinct I Q
and Q component sequences, Unique Properties:
each 32,768 chips long
• Each Short PN Sequence Short PN Sequence vs. Itself @ 0 Offset
(and, as a matter of fact, any I
sequence) correlates with Q
I
itself perfectly if compared at Q
a timing offset of 0 chips 100% Correlation: All bits = 0

• Each Short PN Sequence is

Short PN Sequence vs. Itself @ Any Offset
special: Orthogonal to a copy
I
of itself that has been offset Q
by any number of chips (other I
Q
than 0) Orthogonal: 16,384 1’s + 16,384 0’s
Short PN…
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
p1 p2 p3 p4 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
p4
0 1 0 1
p4 p2 p3
p5 = p1 + p4 1 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
p4 p5 p2 p3
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Short PN…
The PN sequences are deterministic and periodic.
– The length of the generated string is 2n-1,
where “n” is the number of elements in the
register
– The number of ones in the sequence are
equal to the number of zeros plus 1
 Short PN…
Up to 64 Up to 64
Code Channels Code Channels
A B
• Each Sector in each Base Station is transmitting
a Forward Traffic Channel containing up to 64
forward code channels.
• These Short PN Sequences can be used in 512
different ways in a CDMA system. Each one of
them constitutes a mathematical code which can
be used to identify a particular sector.

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Long PN
• The main function of the Long PN
Sequence is found on the reverse link.
• Since all users can be on the same
frequency, it is easy to confuse for the
BTS.
• The long PN is used to identify and
differentiate the users on the reverse
channel.
 Long PN Sequence
Long Code Register
(@ 1.2288 MCPS)
AND
1100011000 ESN Public Long Code Mask
(STATIC)

=
S UM User Long Code
Sequence
(@1.2288 MCPS)

Modulo-2 Addition
• Each mobile station uses a unique User Long Code Sequence
generated by applying a mask, based on its 32-bit ESN, to the 42-bit
Long Code Generator which was synchronized with the CDMA system
during the mobile station initialization.
• Generated at 1.2288 Mcps, this sequence requires 41 days, 10 hours,
12 minutes and 19.4 seconds to complete.
• Portions of the User Long Codes generated by different mobile
stations for the duration of a call are not exactly orthogonal but are
sufficiently different to permit reliable decoding on the reverse link.
 Long PN…
• The CDMA system must be
able to identify each Mobile
RV Traffic
from M.S. Station that may attempt to
#1837732008
RV Traffic
from M.S. communicate with a Base
#1997061104
Station.

• One binary digit sequence

RV Traffic
called the Long PN Sequence
System Access
Attempt by M.S.
#2000071301
from M.S.
#1994011508 (or Long PN Code) is defined
(on access channel #1)
for the purpose of uniquely
identifying each possible
reverse code channel.
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 Coding in CDMA
• Data transmission efficiency has been
a critical issue in the development of
telecommunication networks for a
long time.
• so it is extremely important to use
different speech coding techniques.
 Coding…
• To date, researchers have been studying
this issue in two ways.
• Study new modulation methods and
techniques to improve channel
transmission bit rate.
• Compress source encoding bit rate.
 Speech coding…
Speech coding is essential because we
have to use the available bandwidth
efficiently.
current CDMA systems employ an effective
voice encoding technique, Qualcomm Code
Excited Linear Prediction (QCELP).
The other kind of coding widely used is
EVRC(Enhanced variable rate coding)

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 Channel Encoding
Technology
Due to the peculiarity of mobile
communication systems, high requirement
is imposed on channel encoding.
The aim of channel encoding is to
minimize error during transmission.
Some of the encoding technologies are:
 Convolutional
 Viterbi
 Turbo
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 Unit Three
CDMA Network and Its
Elements

Contents
Network Architecture
 Description of Network elements

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 CDMA Network Architecture
PSTN/PLMN

MSC/VLR HLR/AUC
Abis

Um BTS （ IS-95 ）E1 SC

IS95 BSC （ IS-

95 ）

Abis

BTS （ IS-95 ）
WIN
IP HA
Um Abis
BSC/ PCF (1X)
IS2000 E1 OMC
E1 Internet
STM-1
2G/3G BTS （ 1X Ethernet
Terminals ） Router Router

Ethernet
IP
Abis
BSC/ PCF (1X) PDSN/FA
E1
STM-1

BTS （ 1X AAA Server

）
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 Description of Network
elements
• BTS:BTS is in charge of wireless
transmission.
• The BTS is the network element
responsible for maintaining the air interface
and minimizing the transmission problems.
Air interface signaling
Speech processing
The base station can contain several TRXs
(Transceivers)

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Information Technology
 Description…
• The BSC is the central network element that
controls the radio network. The important
functions of the BSC are:
Connection establishment between the AT and the
core network elements.
Statistical data collection and control of the BTS’s and
the AT’s.
Signalling support in the air and with the core network
elements.
Mobility management:

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Information Technology
 Description of Network elements
• MSCe (MSC emulation)
– The MSCe (MSC emulation) is a set of
multiple logic functional entities.
– It supports mobility management, and
provides call control, connection, VLR
and some service functions.
– It is the core device providing call
control and service for CS real-time
voice/data services in this phase.
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Information Technology
 Description…
• MGW (Media gateway )
– The MGW (Media gateway ) provides the packet
switching environment in the core network , and
the circuit switching environment in the PSTN
with the support for bearer services.
• HLRe (HLR emulation)
– On the base of HLR in 2G, the IP signaling
interface is added to the HLRe to manage the
user’s voice service , data service features , user
location and accessibility information.

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Information Technology
 Unit Four
Understanding CDMA channels

Contents
 Defining Channel term in CDMA
 Channel Structures
 CDMA IS-95 and CDMA2000-1x
CDMA2000-Ev-DO

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Information Technology
 Defining Channel term in
.
CDMA FDMA
• Channel: An individually-
assigned, dedicated pathway Power

through a transmission Tim que

nc
y

medium for one user’s e Fre

information. TDMA
• The transmission medium is a Power

resource that can be Tim qu

en
cy
e Fre
subdivided into individual
channels according to the CDMA
technology used. Power

c y
Tim u en
q
e Fre
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Information Technology
 Defining Channel…
– Code Channels are characterized (made unique)
by mathematical codes
– Code channels in the forward link: Pilot, Sync,
Paging and Forward Traffic channels
– Code channels in the reverse link: Access and
Reverse Traffic channels
– The bandwidth of a CDMA channel is constant
and it is 1.25MHz.

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Information Technology
Channel Structures in CDMA
IS-95 and 2000-1x

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Information Technology
 Pilot Channel
Transmitted
Transmitted constantly
constantly byby Base
Base station
station to
to provide
provide
aa reference
reference for
for all
all mobile
mobile
stations.
stations.
All
All Base
Base Stations
Stations share
share the
the same
same Short
Short PNPN
sequence,
sequence, butbut are
are distinguished
distinguished byby the
the different
different
phase
phase offsets.
offsets.
Used
Used for
for comparison
comparison of of Signal
Signal strength
strength between
between
different
different base
base stations
stations to
to decide
decide when
when to to perform
perform the
the
Hand
Hand off.
off.

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Information Technology
 Sync Channel
Used
Used toto provide
provide Basic
Basic
system
system parameters
parameters
Used
Used during
during system
system (Acquired Pilot)
acquisition
acquisition stage
stage
Sync Channel
Bit
Bit rate
rate isis 1.2
1.2 kbps
kbps

Uses
Uses Walsh
Walsh Code
Code 32
32

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Information Technology
 Paging Channels
Paging Channel

The
The Paging
Paging channel
channel carries
carries information
information to to allow
allow
the
the network
network to to supply
supply display
display information
information to to be
be
displayed
displayed by by the
the MS
MS
There
There isis one
one paging
paging channel
channel per per sector
sector per
per CDMA
CDMA
carrier
carrier
The
The Paging
Paging Channel
Channel uses
uses Walsh
Walsh codecode -- 11

Two
Two rates
rates are
are supported:
supported: 9.6
9.6 kbps
kbps and
and 4.8
4.8 kbps
kbps
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Information Technology
 Reverse Access
Channels
Access channel


Used
Used by
by the
the mobile
mobile station
station to:
to:
–– Register
Register with
with MSC
MSC(Power
(Power On)On)
–– Originate
Originate aa call
call
–– Respond
Respond to to aa Paging
Paging Channel
Channel
message
message
–– Has
Has aa fixed
fixed data
data rate
rate of
of 4.8
4.8 kbps
kbps

Each
Each Access
Access Channel
Channel isis associated associated
with
with only
only one Paging
oneCollege
Paging Channel
Channel
of Telecommunications
Information Technology
and 53
Reverse Traffic Channels

Reverse Traffic Channel


Used
Used when
when aa call
call isis in
in progress,
progress, to
to send:
send:
––Voice
Voice traffic
traffic from
from thethe subscriber
subscriber
––Response
Response to to commands/queries
commands/queries from
from the
the
base
base station
station
––Requests
Requests toto the
the base
base station
station
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Information Technology
Forward Channel Structure of
Ev-Do
Forward

Medium
Pilot Access Traffic Control
Control

Reverse Reverse
Activity DRC Lock Power
Channel Control(RPC )

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Information Technology
Sharing the Forward Traffic
Channel

DRCLock DRCLock DRCLock DRCLock

DRCLock DRCLock DRCLock DRCLock

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Information Technology
Forward Link Summary
 Forward link transmission is organized as
26.66…ms frames. 1 frame=16 slots,
where 1 slot=2048 chips=1.67 ms.
 The transmission rate (38.4 kbps ~ 2457.6
kbps) is the rate requested by AT,
 Channels are mostly in TDM mode.
 Traffic data are dedicated to a single AT at
any given instant of time.

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Information Technology
Reverse Channel Structure

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Information Technology
Reverse Link Summary
 1 packet = 26.67 ms, 1 slot = 2048 chips,
1 frame=16 slots
 Supporting data rates from 9.6k to 153.2K.
 Channels are in CDM mode
 Two main channels Traffic channel and
Access channel.
 Traffic channel = Pilot + MAC + Data +
ACK
 Access channel = Pilot + Data
 Supporting reverse closed & open loop
power controls

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 Unit Five
CDMA Key Technologies

Contents
Power control
Handoff

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Information Technology
 Power control in CDMA

 There are four types of power control in CDMA

- Reverse open loop power control

- Reverse closed loop power control
- Reverse outer loop power control
- Forward traffic channel power control

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Information Technology
 Reverse Open Loop Power
Control
Reverse Open Loop
Power Control

Mobile BTS

•• The
The mobile
mobile station
station makes
makes aa coarse
coarse initial
initial
estimation
estimation ofof the
the required
required transmit
transmit power,
power, based
based
upon
upon the
the total
total received
received power.
power.

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Information Technology
 Reverse Closed Loop Power
Control

Mobile BTS or
Reverse Closed Loop Signal Strength
Power Control Measurement

Setpoint

Compensates
Compensates for
for asymmetries
asymmetries between
between the
the
forward and reverse
forward and reverse paths paths
Each
Each command
command requests
requests aa 1dB
1dB increase
increase or
or
decrease of the mobile station transmit
decrease of the mobile station transmit power power
Transmitted
Transmitted 800
800 times
times per
per second
second (i.e
(i.e power
power
control
control bit
bit isis transmitted
transmitted every
every 1.25ms
1.25ms ))

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Information Technology
 Reverse Outer Loop Power
Control
Mobile BTS
Reverse Closed Loop Signal
or
Strength
BSC
Power Control Measurement

Setpoint Reverse Outer

Loop Power FER
Control


Most
Most gradual
gradual form
form of
of reverse
reverse link
link power
power
control
control
––Setpoint
Setpoint isis varied
varied according
according to
to the
the FER
FER
on
on the
the Reverse
Reverse Traffic
Traffic Channel
Channel
––Sampled
Sampled atat aa rate
rate of
of 50
50 frames
frames per
per
second
second (20
(20 ms
ms // frame)
frame)
––Setpoint
Setpoint adjusted
adjusted every
every 1-2
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seconds
and 64
Information Technology
 Forward Traffic Channel
Power Control

The
The base
base station
station slowly
slowly decreases
decreases power
power toto
each
each mobile
mobile station.
station.
 As
As the
the FER
FER (determined
(determined atat the
the mobile
mobile
station)
station) increases,
increases, the
the mobile
mobile station
station requests
requests
aa Forward
Forward Traffic
Traffic Channel
Channel power
power increase.
increase.

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Information Technology
 Summary of All Power Control
Mechanisms

All
All types
types of
of power
power control
control work
work together
together toto
minimizes
minimizes power
power consumption
consumption atat the
the mobile
mobilestations.
stations.
This
This increases
increases the
the overall
overall capacity
capacity of
of the
the system
system
transmit
transmit power.
power.
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Information Technology
 Handoff in CDMA
Handoff
Handoff isis the
the process
process byby which
which aa mobile
mobile
station
station maintains
maintains communications
communications withwith the
the
Mobile
Mobile Switching
Switching center
center (MSC),
(MSC), when
when traveling
traveling
from
fromthe
the coverage
coverage areaarea of
of one
one base
base station
station toto that
that
of
of another.
another.
Handoffs
Handoffs keep
keep thethe call
call established
established during
during thethe
following
following conditions:
conditions:
––Subscriber
Subscriber crosses
crosses the
the boundaries
boundaries ofof aa cell
cell
––Subscriber
Subscriber experiences
experiences noise
noise oror other
other
interference
interference above
above aa specified
specified threshold
threshold

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Information Technology
CDMA Handoff Classification

While in the Idle Handoff

Idle State

Soft Handoff

Softer Handoff

During Inter-System Soft Handoff

a Call
CDMA-to-CDMA Handoff

CDMA-to-Analog Handoff

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Information Technology
 CDMA Idle Handoff

PN 108
Ec/Io

104108

A
g s
M s
e l g
n n M s
ha e l
g C n n It’s neither soft nor hard
in h a handoff!
g C
Pa n c
PN 104S y
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Information Technology
 CDMA Idle Handoff…

>3dB PN 108 g s
Ec/Io M s
e l
n n s g
104108 h a l M
C n e
in g a n
a g C h
P n c
A
Sy

PN 104 College of Telecommunications and

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Information Technology
 Soft Handoff

Cell Site MSC PSTN Cell Site

A B

Between
Between sectors
sectors of
of different
different cells
cells

Soft
Soft Handoff:
Handoff: the
the mobile
mobile station
station starts
starts
communications
communications with with aa target
target base
base station
station
without
without interrupting
interrupting communications
communications with with the
the
current
current serving
serving base
base station.
station.

 Can
Can involve
involve upup to
to three
three cells
cells simultaneously
simultaneously
and
and use
use all
all signals
signals
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Information Technology
 Softer Handoff
Handoff
Handoff isis between
between
sectors
sectors of
of the
the same
same
cell
cell
alpha May
May happen
happen
frequently
frequently
beta
MSC
MSCisis aware
aware but
but
does
does not
not participate
participate
gamma
Signals
Signals received
received atat
both
both sectors
sectors can
can be
be
combined
combined forfor
improved
improved quality
quality
How many CE will be used?
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Information Technology
 Inter-System Soft Handoff

Mobile
Mobile Station
Station starts
starts communications
communications with with aa
new
new cell
cell controlled
controlled byby aa different
different BSC
BSC while
while still
still
communicating
communicating with
with the
the cell
cell controlled
controlled by
by the
the
source
source BSC.
BSC.
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Information Technology
 CDMA-to-CDMA Hard
Handoff
PSTN
PSTN
MSC MSC T1 or E1 Links MSC
TIA/EIA-41D
BSC BSC BSC
A B A B
(ƒ1) (ƒ2)
Between
Between cells
cells operating
operating on
on different
different
frequencies
frequencies
Between
Between cells
cells that
that could
could be
be on
on the
thesame
same
frequency,
frequency, but
but which
which arearesubordinated
subordinated toto
different
different MSC
MSC
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Information Technology
 Unit Six
Interfaces and Protocols

Contents
 Interfaces
Protocols and signaling
Typical CDMA Network Architecture

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Information Technology
Interfaces in CDMA 20001x

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Information Technology
 Interfaces of 1xEVDO

A8 A10
Source Access PDSN
PCF A11
Network (AN) A9

Access
Terminal (AT) Air Interface A13 A12
AN AAA

Target Access
Network (AN) signaling

service

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Information Technology
 Interfaces…
• The A1 interface carries signaling
information between BSC and MSC.

• The A2 interface mainly carries 64/56K PCM

between BSS and MSC.

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Information Technology
 Interfaces…
• A3 interface is used to support the soft
handoff(interconnection between BSCs required)
between BSSs when the MS is in the traffic
channel status. A3 interface is divided into two
parts: A3 signaling interface and A3 traffic
interface.

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Information Technology
 Interfaces…
• A7 interface is used to support the handoff
between BSSs when the MS is not yet
under the control of traffic channel status,
and support the control stream when the
MS undergoes soft handoff between BSSs
and new service needs to be established.

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Information Technology
 Interfaces…
• A8 & A9 interfaces are adopted to carry
service data and signaling respectively
between BSC and PCF.
• A10 & A11 interfaces are adopted to carry
service data and signaling respectively
between PCF and PDSN.

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Information Technology
 Interfaces…
• A12 interface carries signaling information
of access authentication (only include 3
messages: access request, access
accept, and access reject).
• A13 interface exchanges signaling when
AT is roaming between source AN and
target AN.

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling

 SIP/SIP-T  H.248  MAP  BSSAP  RTP

SCCP

 M3UA  SUA

 TCP  SCTP  UDP

 IP
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 Protocols & signaling…
Signaling
•It is the dialog language for the
communication between various parts of the
telecom network.
•Signaling system includes a set of signaling
and operation procedure.

•Signaling system is the collection of

software and hardware which
generate 、 transmit 、 receive and recognize
the signaling.
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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
 Signaling System SS7 is the predominant signaling
system for the Public Switched Telephone Network
(PSTN) and also Public Land Mobile Networks (PLMN).
 SS7 defines the procedures for setting-up, managing
and clearing down calls between subscriber(circuit-
related signaling ), as well as non circuit-related
signaling.

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
What is H.248?
 Control
 MSCe Signaling  MSCe
 Over IP

 H.248
 H.248 ： used in MSCe to control the MGW implement  H.248
 voice bearing on the packet network. They reflect the idea of
 separating control function from the media conversion function.
 MGW
 MGW
 Media
 MGW
 MGW  Over
IP  MGW

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…

• Command is used to operate and manage

logical entities (context and terminations). The
protocol defines eight commands, of which the
majority is used for the MGC (MSCe) to control
MG (MGW).
• All of the commands in one action control the
same context.

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
H.248 commands

Add

Modify

Subtract

Move
MSCe MGW
AuditValue

AuditCapabilities

Notify

ServiceChange

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
SIP: Session Initiation Protocol
• SIP is a multimedia communication protocol
established by IETF.
• It is a text-based application-layer control
protocol independent of lower-layer protocols,
designed to establish, modify and terminate
two-party or multi-party multimedia sessions
over the IP network.

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
SIP supports proxy, redirect and user location
registration functions. It also supports user
mobility. it can support and be applied to voice,
video and data services. In addition, it can be
applied to characteristic services like Presence
and Instant Message (similar to MSN).

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
SIP message types

Requests: Responses:
• INVITE – initiate call
• ACK – confirm final • 1xx – Informational
response • 2xx – Successful
• BYE – terminate call
• 3xx – Redirection
• CANCEL – cancel
search/ring • 4xx – Request Failure
• 5xx – Server Failure
• 6xx – Global Failure
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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
IETF SIGTRAN Protocol Model
 SS7 SCCP-User Adaptation Layer
 SS7 MTP2-User Peer-to-Peer Adaptation Layer
 SS7 MTP3-User Adaptation Layer
 MAP
 SS7 MTP2-User Adaptation Layer

 BSSAP  TCAP

 SCCP  H.248  TUP/ISUP

 SUA  MTP3  MTP3

 M3UA
 M2PA  M2UA

 SCTP

 IP

 Blue parts are SIGTRAN (Signaling Transport).

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
SCTP Protocol

• SCTP: Stream Control Transmission

Protocol
• A reliable connection-oriented transport
protocols
• At the same layer as TCP and UDP in
network model
• SCTP is designed to transport PSTN
signaling messages over IP networks

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 Protocols & signaling…
Association
• An association is an SCTP connection.
• The creation of an association is initiated by an
SCTP user. To guarantee the security and
prevent malicious attacks, the cookie
mechanism is adopted during the starting of an
association.
• The connection creation and release is used for
the transition of the connection status and
abnormality handling.

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Information Technology
 Protocols & signaling…
M3UA Protocol

• M3UA is the adapter layer for SS7 MTP3 user.

• Implement the interconnection between SS7 over TDM and IP
• M3UA provides powerful routing function

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 Unit Seven
Comparing CDMA to Other
Cellular Technologies

Contents
Advantages provided by CDMA
Disadvantages of CDMA

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Information Technology
 Advantages of CDMA
 High privacy, hard to wiretapping

Signal can be sent below

Spread signal the noise .

Information Demodulated
signal signal

TX RX

Spread code Spread code

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Information Technology
 Advantages…

 Good voice quality, uses 8k QCELP, 13K

QCELP,8k EVRC, voice coding - the best coding
method in the world.

Voice quality
(MOS) 64k
PCM
13k
GSM
8k QCELP 13k
CDMA QCELP
8kEVRC
CDMA
CDMA

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Information Technology
 Advantages…
AMPS, D-AMPS, N-AMPS
Frequency reuse 1 3 1 Users 2
7 3
1
factor is 1; 6
5
4

network design and 30 30 10 kHz

Typical Frequency Reuse N=7
expanding becomes GSM
much easier. 2
8 Users 1
3
4
200 kHz
Typical Frequency Reuse N=4

CDMA 1
1 1
1
1 1
20 Users 1 1
1 1
1
1 1
1250 kHz 1
Typical Frequency Reuse N=1
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Information Technology
 Advantages…
Calldrop rate is very low due to soft
handoff

Soft handoff Hard handoff

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Information Technology
 Advantages…
Good Power Control and voice activation make the
MS Power low, healthy for body—green mobile
phone.

Mean Power Max Power

GSM: 125mW 2W
CDMA: 2mW 200mW

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Information Technology
 Advantages…
Large coverage: Almost 2 times more than GSM.

Example: cover 1000 km2

 GSM needs 200 BTS
CDMA needs only 50 BTS
Attention: exact result need “Link Budget ”

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Information Technology
 Advantages…
High spectrum capacity ， 8--10 times more than
AMPS,4—6 times more than GSM

FDMA---Different user use different FDMA

frequency:TACS,AMPS Power
y
Tim e nc
qu
TDMA---Different user use e Fre

TDMA
different time slot of one Power
y
frequency :GSM 、 DAMPS Tim
e Fre
qu
e nc

CDMA---Different user use CDMA

Power
same frequency at the same Tim que
nc
y
e Fre
time, but with different
spreading code
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Information Technology
 Disadvantages of CDMA
 Channel pollution (self jamming)
Signals from too many cell sites are present
at the subscriber’s phone but none of them
happens to be dominant.
the quality of the audio signal degrades
leads to customer dissatisfaction and service
loss of the operator.

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Information Technology
 Disadvantages…
 Lack of international roaming capabilities
 compared to GSM, there is the lack of international
roaming capabilities.
 the ability to upgrade or change to another handset
is not easy with this technology.
 the network service information for the phone is
put in the actual phone unlike GSM which uses
SIM card for this.

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Information Technology
 Disadvantages…
 Near-Far problem
 If the nearer transmitter transmits a signal that is orders
of magnitude higher than the farther transmitter:
 then the SNR for the farther transmitter may be
below detect ability
 farther transmitter may just as well not transmit.
 CDMA highly depends on power control unlike
other networks like GSM.

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Information Technology