Coral Reefs and Climate Change

CORAL
REEFS &
CLIMATE
CHANGE
Gabby Lopez
Eli Siwa
BACKGROUND & SITUATION
WHAT ARE CORAL REEFS?
• Rainforests of the sea
– Home to ¼ of all marine species
– Provide habitat & breeding ground for commercially important species
– Natural buffers
– Highest biodiversity of any marine ecosystem
• Canaries in a coal mine
– Early indicators of impact of climate change
• Eco-systems of environmental & human value
– Protect shores from the impact of waves and from storms
– Provide a lot of benefits to humans in the form of food and medicine
– Provide economic benefits to local communities from tourism
CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

Carribean Bahamas Great Barrier Reef

Marshall Islands, Maldives
Southeast Asia Red Sea Belize
Hawaii, French Polynesia
East Africa GBB Lagoon New Caledonia Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Florida Keys
Photo reference/s to follow.

Different types of coral reefs built on top of old previous reefs, over the underlying base rock,
including volcanic rock and sediments. Major influences are marked as arrows indicating direction of
influence.


Profile of coral reef with typical reef “zones”

There are 2 distinct regions in which coral reefs are primarily distributed: the Wider Caribbean
(Atlantic Ocean) & the Indo-Pacific (from East Africa & the Red Sea to the Central Pacific Ocean).


Majority of reef building corals are found within tropical & subtropical waters. Red dots show the
location of major stony coral reefs of the world.

Important features of the marine environment.
Constructed from accumulated skeletons of limestone-
secreting animals and plants. An ecosystem in tropical
& subtropical H2O across the planet, in shallow
oceanic water, often close to land.

Cross-section of a polyp Cross-section of a nematocyst cell
• Dying around the world
– 20% effectively destroyed & no signs of recovery
– 24% under imminent risk of collapse thru human pressure
– 26% under long-term threat
– 60% threatened by human activity
– 70% may be lost by 2050 due to human impacts
– 1/3 of reef species facing extinction
• Global threats
– Coastal development
– Overfishing
– Inland pollution
– Global climate change

IMPACT ON CLIMATE CHANGE
• Coral bleaching
– Zooxanthellae – Corals’ symbiotic partner, when they stop producing
food, corals spit them out
– Caused by elevated sea surface temperatures due to global climate
change
– Stress on coral reefs – hot H2O, cold H2O, no light, fresh H2O
– 2o higher than the normal summer high temperature, corals die if higher
– Predicted very well using satellite measures of SST
– 1998 El Nino – 98% of corals in the Maldives and Seychelles died; 16% of the
world’s corals
– Not known about in the 70’s but has been increasing in decades
– If status quo, predicted to kill all reefs in 50 years

• Coral bleaching (cont’d)

• Coral bleaching (cont’d)

Photos of bleached corals
• Slower coral growth
– Vertical growth rate of coral likely to be slower than increase in sea level
 1) corals will not be able to protect the shore as wave energy could
increase in strength; 2) smaller reefs will produce smaller amounts of reef
sediment w/c builds & supports island land-bases
• Physical damage to coral reefs
– Increased coral mortality is expected as storm & cyclones become more
frequent
– Coral reef growth may not be able to keep pace with destructive events
• Coral mortality
– Will seriously endanger coral reefs, especially those under stress
– Straw that breaks the camel’s back: stressed reefs i.e. poor H2O quality,
destructive fishing, tourism impacts

• Ocean acidification
– ¼ of CO2 enters the ocean & reacts with H2O to form
carbonic acid – difficult for corals to secrete calcium
carbonate skeleton
– Slows growth of coral skeletons, starts to dissolve reefs
– Does not directly rely on warming but worsens its effects
– Will finish off anything that survives bleaching

Linkages between the
buildup of atmospheric
CO2, the acidification of
the ocean & the slowing of
coral calcification.

• Global warming & reef distribution
– May extend range of corals to areas that are now too cold
• Reduced calcification potential
– Change in seawater chemistry affect ability of reefs to
calcify
• Sea level rise
– Waves can go across reefs and erode land
– Might drown reefs that are near their lower depth limit by
decreasing available light
– Stress by sedimentation because of increased erosion of
shorelines

• El Nino southern escalation

– Warm water anomalies + seasonal maximum H2O temp = coral
bleaching
– Sea level decreases can expose shallow reefs & lead to mass
mortality
• Ocean circulation changes
• Precipitation & storm patterns
– Increase can lower salinity & increase sediment discharge &
lead to mortality
– Intensity of droughts may cause changes in vegetation cover &
lead to erosion & stress when rains return

CASE STUDY: VITI LEVU, FIJI
• Largest island in Fiji supporting 77% of population

– 2050 – climate change could produce economic losses of
US$23-52M/yr on Viti Levu alone
– Rise in SST predicted to increase ciguatera poisoning*
(expected to rise from 35-70K people to 160-430K by
2050)
– Total economic losses of coral reef degradation caused by
climate change = US$5-14M/yr by 2050 thru
– loss of fisheries, habitat & tourism value on VL

*Food poisoning cause by eating fish that have eaten ciguatoxic
algae that grows after storms
COUNTRY STUDY: PHILIPPINES
• Part of the Coral Triangle

• Important assets - +US$1 B annually
– 80-90% of small island communities
– 20-25 MT/KM2/YR
• Local coastal communities no idea on what coral reefs
are
• Among most vulnerable to climate change

COUNTRY STUDY: PHILIPPINES
• Nearly all are under severe threat
– 1,000 MPAs – only 20% are functioning
– 10-15% of total fisheries
– Slowly dying in the past 30 years
– 97% under threat
– Only 5% are in excellent condition
• Massive degradation caused by rapid population growth &
increasing human pressure
– Too many fishermen
– Every Pinoy lives within 45m of the coast
– 4,500 new residents born

RESPONSE & ACTION
CORAL REEF RECOVERY
• Instead of focusing on saving individual coral species, the
overall health of the oceans could be protected by managing
the protection of coral reefs to maximize their overall
abundance
– Would also have the effect of maximizing the numbers of all the
species that rely on them for food or habitat
• GOOD NEWS  Coral reefs can recover within decades, a
process that has already started to occur at some reefs in the
Caribbean and Pacific
– But only if they are free of man-made pressures such as H2O pollution,
overfishing and climate change

RESPONSE & ACTION
U.S. GOVERNANCE INITIATIVES TO ADDRESS CORAL
REEF PROBLEMS
1. Establish and strengthen local and national policies &
programs to improve coastal H2O quality and protect reef-
dependent watersheds
2. Expand marine protected areas around reefs in the US &
collaborate with other nations to promote such efforts in their
regions
3. Increase federal funding for coral reef research & restoration
4. Discourage trade in marine species that have been captured
through damaging or unsustainable techniques

RESPONSE & ACTION
REEF PROBLEMS
United States Task Force on Coral Reefs
National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs
• Understand Coral Reef Ecosystems

1. Map All US Coral Reefs
2. Assess and Monitor Reef Health
3. Conduct Strategic Research
4. Understand the Human Dimension

RESPONSE & ACTION
REEF PROBLEMS
United States Task Force on Coral Reefs
National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs (cont’d)
• Reduce the Adverse Impacts of Human Activities

1. Expand and Strengthen the US Network of Coral Reef MPAs
2. Reduce Impacts of Extractive Uses
3. Reduce Habitat Destruction
4. Reduce Pollution
5. Restore Damaged Reefs
6. Reduce Global Threats to Coral Reefs
7. Reduce Impacts from International Trade in Coral Reef Species
8. Improve Governmental Coordination and Accountability
9. Create an Informed Public

RESPONSE & ACTION
OCEAN PARKS HELP CORALS REBOUND
• Parrot fish helps baby coral by clearing algae  the adult
coral return the favor by creating nooks and crannies for parrot
fish to hide in
• A healthy abundance of parrot fish, like the queen parrot fish,
helps keep algae away  allows baby corals to find a new
home on the reef
• “If we're going to have recovery of reefs in the Caribbean and
elsewhere, we need baby corals to come back. This is an
approach that helps baby corals come back.”

RESPONSE & ACTION
ARTIFICIAL REEFS
• Man-made, underwater structures, typically built for the
purpose of promoting marine life in areas of generally
featureless bottom
– May also serve to improve hydrodynamics for surfing or to control
beach erosion
• Can be built in a number of different methods
– Many reefs are built by deploying existing materials in order to create
a reef. This can be done by sinking oil rigs (through the Rigs-to-Reefs
program), scuttling ships, or by deploying rubble, tires, or construction
debris. Other artificial reefs are purpose built (e.g. the reef balls) from
PVC and/or concrete. Historic or modern shipwrecks become
unintended artificial reefs when preserved on the sea floor. Regardless
of construction method, artificial reefs are generally designed to
provide hard surfaces to which algae and invertebrates such as
barnacles, corals, and attach; the accumulation of attached marine life
in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish

RESPONSE & ACTION
ARTIFICIAL REEFS

Photo of an artificial reef
RESPONSE & ACTION
FOR HEALTHY CORALS: EL NINO, BAD; ATMOSPHERIC CORALS,
GOOD
• El Niño years, however, hurt the coral
• This warm weather raises the sea surface temperature, resulting in an
increase in coral bleaching. But, the volcanic eruptions in Mexico and
in the Philippines protected corals from bleaching even during strong
El Niño years
• Whether Caribbean coral reefs retain their vibrant colors or
turn a deathly white depends in part on how much dust there is
in the atmosphere
• Climate scientists have long known that aerosols cool the atmosphere
and that the Pacific warming called El Niño globally influences the
climate and warms the Caribbean, but now researchers have shown that
these effects influence bleaching of the over a million square miles of
Caribbean coral reefs

RESPONSE & ACTION
ARTIFICIAL REEFS IN LAMON BAY, QUEZON,
PHILIPPINES
• In their aim to protect and rehabilitate the vast fishing grounds
fronting this town, officials, environmentalists, fisherfolk and
members of civic groups have banded together and built a
massive artificial reef, which they sank to the bottom of
Lamon Bay
• Touted to be the Philippines’ biggest, the concrete, man-made
reef is about 4m high and 21m in diameter, and weighs some
85 tons. It is supported by hundreds of concrete-like balusters
joined together in several sections

RESPONSE & ACTION
POINTERS IN PLANNING ARTIFICIAL REEFS
• Before installing any artificial reef, clearly define the purposes
for which it is needed
– MPAs with a shortage of interesting, accessible dive sites might benefit,
but a careful CBA is needed; if the proposed purpose is fishery
enhancement, the potential role of the artificial reef in relation to other
fisheries management mechanisms must be considered
• An EIA may be a legal requirement but if not, a full assessment
of the environmental and socio-economic impact of the proposed
artificial reef should be undertaken
– Consultation with stakeholders is essential from the start, to avoid
conflict with fishers and other users of the area. Relevant authorities (e.g.
port) should be consulted to ensure that there is no conflict with existing
or proposed shipping routes
– A baseline survey of the seabed is required before installation, and the
development of the artificial reef should be monitored

RESPONSE & ACTION
CASE STUDY: MAURITIUS ARTIFICIAL REEFS
• Since 1981, 14 ships have been sunk by the Mauritius Marine
Conservation Society (MMCS) in association with relevant
authorities such as the Ministries of Fisheries and
Environment and the Port Authority
– Aim was to create artificial reefs for marine biodiversity conservation,
as MMCS was concerned about the lack of MPAs set aside for this.
The 6 Fishing Reserves in Mauritius receive little active management,
having been established primarily to protect fish breeding and nursery
areas. Pelagic fish were attracted within weeks of the sinking of each
vessel, and all now have benthic fish populations and are covered with
soft corals and algal growth.
– However, the early reefs became a major attraction for fishers and were
quickly over-exploited. Subsequently, awareness-raising by MMCS
and the demonstrated benefits from the increased diving industry
(fishers provide boat services for tourists) has led to an acceptance of
their value in many parts of the island, with less fishing (despite no
legal protection) and some fishers are involved in their installation

RESPONSE & ACTION
IUCN RESPONSES
• 2 Important tools
– Coral reef monitoring
– Coral transplantation
• 3 Important strategies
– Marine Protected Areas
– Integrated Coastal Management
– Fisheries Management

RESPONSE & ACTION
IUCN INTERVENTIONS
• Coral Reef Monitoring

– Ecological monitoring focuses on the physical and
biological parameters of coral reefs, while socio-economic
monitoring aims to understand how people use and interact
with coral reefs
– Good monitoring programs can be used to improve coral
reef resilience by allowing the identification and protection
of larval sources, connectivity patterns and representative
and replicated habitat types, as well as allowing the
effective management of other threats

RESPONSE & ACTION
IUCN STRATEGIES
• Marine Protected Areas
– The most widespread management strategy employed to enhance
coastal ecosystem resilience and protect coral reefs. Although an MPA
designation cannot directly protect a coral reef from bleaching, it can
be used to improve coral reef resilience by protecting the coral reef
from other anthropogenic disturbances
– Once target coral reefs have been identified, they should be protected
from human disturbance as far as possible with management tools such
as zoning schemes, monitoring schemes, boundaries and regulations.
MPAs can be strict ‘no-take zones’ where no extractive activities may
take place, or they can be broader ‘multiple use protected areas’ where
several activities are managed and carried out in a sustainable manner.
Multiple-use areas have the benefit of involving key stakeholders, but
imply inherent risks and uncertainties involved with fisheries
management

RESPONSE & ACTION
IUCN STRATEGIES
• Integrated Coastal Management
– An important management strategy that can complement an MPA
network
– Coral reefs do not stand alone as ecosystems and are part of a larger
seascape matrix, so the health of surrounding ecosystems such as
seagrass beds, mangroves and adjacent watersheds is important for the
health of coral reefs. Consequently, coral reef managers should take a
holistic approach and integrate the management of coral reefs with the
management of surrounding coastal ecosystems
– Belize - an example of a relatively effective ICM program where
management has evolved from a species specific sectoral fisheries
approach to the current ecosystem-wide approach of ICM and is
moving towards a fully multi-sectoral strategy
– ‘… is likely to prove critical to successful long-term protection of the
reef ecosystem’ and ‘provides a good model for sustainable coral reef
management’
RESPONSE & ACTION
IUCN STRATEGIES
• Fisheries Management
– Coral mortality caused by bleaching can impact fisheries by affecting
fishing yields, the composition of fish communities and the spatial
distribution of fishing efforts. Conversely, destructive fishing practices
such as blast- or poison-fishing can reduce coral reef resilience by
decreasing coral cover or by depleting the populations of keystone
functional groups (e.g. predators of crown-of-thorns starfish or
herbivores that graze down algae and prepare the substrate for
successful settlement and recruitment of coral larvae)
– Furthermore, over-fishing causes losses of biodiversity and functional
diversity, and thus also reduces overall coral reef resilience
– Fisheries management can be aided by management actions such as the
creation of no-take zones, the restriction of gear use, the imposition of
fishing licenses, the implementation of protective measures for key
species, the implementation of legislation controlling destructive
fishing techniques, the monitoring of catch compositions, the
development of alternative livelihoods, and the regulation of the
harvest of organisms for the curio and aquarium trades
RESPONSE & ACTION
IUCN PROJECTS
• 1999 - Resilience Alliance
– Research organization of scientists and practitioners from many
disciplines who collaborate to explore the dynamics of social
ecological systems, a broad focus that goes beyond coral reef resilience
• 2005 - IUCN Working Group on Tropical Marine Ecosystems
– Some of the leading experts in the field of coral reef research. 1st issue
to be addressed by this group is the issue of resilience, coral reefs and
climate change, and the group aims to bridge gaps between the
theoretical science of resilience and its practical management
application to develop and implement tools that will improve the
protection of coral reefs under the threat of climate change

RESPONSE & ACTION
IUCN PROJECTS
• 1999 – Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean
Programme (CORDIO)
– A collaborative operational program under ICRI to assess the
widespread degradation of coral reefs throughout the Indian Ocean.
Much of CORDIO’s research focuses on mitigation of damage to coral
reefs and on alternative livelihoods for people dependent on coral reefs
that are being degraded due to climate change and other stress factors
• Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Bleach Watch
– A partnership between reef managers and the community dedicated to
understanding and reporting coral bleaching events and other climate
change impacts on the Great Barrier Reef, as well as developing
management strategies to respond to this emerging threat. GBRMPA is
collaborating with NOAA, AIMS and IUCN to carry out research and
produce guides for coral reef managers, and has been awarded an ARC
grant to work on a program on ‘Management of coral reef resilience’

RESOURCES
VARIOUS PUBLICATIONS, ARTICLES, JOURNALS,
ORGANIZATIONS
• World Wildlife Fund for Animals
• National Wildlife Federation
• Pew Center on Global Climate Change
• US National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration
• United States Coral Task Force
• Gaia Deicovery Eco Living
• The Coral Reef Alliance
• International Coral Reef Action Network
• World Resources Institute
• Ocean World
• Doug Fenner, Climate Change Effects on Coral Reefs
• Patricia Glick, Coral Reefs & Climate Change: Last Straw for a
Threatened Ecosystem
• www.eoearth.org

Coral Reefs and Climate Change

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CORAL

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

Carribean Bahamas Great Barrier Reef

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CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

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CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

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CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

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CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

• Coral bleaching (cont’d)

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• Coral bleaching (cont’d)

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CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

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CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

• El Nino southern escalation

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

• Largest island in Fiji supporting 77% of population

Photo reference/s to follow.

• Part of the Coral Triangle

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

• Understand Coral Reef Ecosystems

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

• Reduce the Adverse Impacts of Human Activities

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

Photo reference/s to follow.

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

• Coral Reef Monitoring

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

CORAL REEFS & CLIMATE CHANGE

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