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 The task of nervous system is to
coordinate the mental processes
by which we perceive, act, learn
and remember. Y
  
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 The human brain is a network
of billions of individual nerve
cells interconnected in systems
that construct our perceptions
of the external world, fix our
attention, and control the
machinery of our actions.

 The nervous system has two

classes of cells: à
  
à 
à
à   

 „upporting Cells (Neuroglial
Cells) in the CN„
 
  

 

  

 


 

 
 

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 ^lial cells are support cells.
 They are more in number than neurons.
 There are between 10 and 50 times more glia than neurons in the brain of humans.
 The name for these cells derives from the ^reek word for glue. In actual terms, the
glia do not commonly hold nerve cells together but surround the neurons.
   : Astrocytes,
Oligodendrocytes, and Microglia
 Ñ
 : Most
abundant glial cell type,
irregular star-shaped cell
bodies .
 Take up and release ions to
control the environment
around neurons
 Recapture and recycle
neurotransmitters
 Involved with synapse
formation in developing
neural tissue
 Produce molecules
necessary for neural
growth
 Propagate calcium signals
that may be involved in
memory
 u  à
 : Have
few branches.
 Wrap their cell processes
around axons in CN„
 Produce myelin sheaths
for rapid conduction of
nerve impulses

 „àà  surround

axons in the PN„ and form
myelin sheath around
axons of the PN„
 º
: „mallest
and least abundant.

 Phagocytes ± the
macrophages of the CN„
 ngulf invading
microorganisms and
dead neurons
 Derived from blood cells
called monocytes
 
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 Nerve cells are the main signaling units of the nervous system.
 A typical neuron has four morphologically defined regions° 
   à
   àà
à
à

 The    

is the metabolic center of the cell. It
contains the nucleus which stores the genes of the cell, as well
as the endoplasmic reticulum, an extension of the nucleus
where the cell¶s proteins are synthesized.
 The cell body gives rise to two kinds of processes: several short
 à
  and one, long, tubular  à.
 These processes vary in number & relative length but always
serve to conduct impulses (with dendrites conducting impulses
toward the cell body and axons conducting impulses away
from the cell body as shown in the figure).
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 „ynapse
 The axon endings (Output
Zone) almost touch the
dendrites or cell body of the
next neuron.

  
 Transmission of an electrical 
  
signal from one neuron to the
next is effected by
neurotransmitters, chemicals
which are released from the
first neuron and which bind to
receptors in the second. This
link is called a synapse.

 The extent to which the signal

from one neuron is passed on to
the next depends on many
factors, e.g. the amount of
neurotransmitter available, the
number and arrangement of
receptors, amount of 
 

   
neurotransmitter reabsorbed,
etc.
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 An axon can convey electrical signals along
distances ranging from 0.1 mm to 3 m. These
electrical signals called  à  à are
rapid, transient with an amplitude of 100 mV
and a duration of about 1ms.

 Neurons can respond to stimuli and conduct

impulses because a membrane potential is
established across the cell membrane. In other
words, there is an unequal distribution of ions
(charged atoms) on the two sides of a nerve cell
membrane.

 This can be illustrated with a voltmeter: With

one electrode placed inside a neuron and the
other outside, the voltmeter is 'measuring' the
difference in the distribution of ions on the
inside versus the outside (see the adjoining
figure). And, in this example, the voltmeter
reads -70 mV (mV = millivolts). In other words,
the inside of the neuron is slightly negative
relative to the outside. This difference is
referred to as the Resting Membrane Potential.
It is called a R „TIN^ potential because it
occurs when a membrane is not being
stimulated or conducting impulses (in other
words, it's resting).
 Nerve
Conduction

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 Disorders of the Nervous „ystem
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Î Alzheimer¶s Disease:
Î Age-associated disorder
Î Loss of memory, cognition,
and executive performances
Î Deposits of amyloid
plaques and neurofibrillary
tangles that interfere with
neuronal functions
Î Loss of cholinergic
neuronal functions
Î Parkinson¶s Disease: Alzheimer¶s Disease
Î Age-associated disorder
Î Rigidity and incoordination
interfering with mobility
Î Loss of dopaminergic
neuronal functions

Parkinson¶s Disease
 List of neurodegenerative diseases
 Alexander's disease
 Alper's disease
 Alzheimer's disease
 Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
 Ataxia telangiectasia
 ïatten disease (also known as
„pielmeyer-Vogt-„jogren-ïatten
disease)
 ïovine spongiform encephalopathy
(ï„ )
 Canavan disease
 Cockayne syndrome
 Corticobasal degeneration
 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
 Huntington's disease
 HIV-associated dementia
 Kennedy's disease
 Krabbe's disease
 Lewy body dementia
 Machado-Joseph disease
(„pinocerebellar ataxia type 3)
 Multiple sclerosis
 Multiple „ystem Atrophy
Narcolepsy
Neuroborreliosis
Parkinson's disease
Pelizaeus-Merzbacher Disease
Pick's disease
Primary lateral sclerosis
Prion diseases
Refsum's disease
 „childer's disease
„ubacute combined degeneration of spinal
cord secondary to Pernicious Anaemia
„chizophrenia
„pielmeyer-Vogt-„jogren-ïatten disease
(also known as ïatten disease)
„pinocerebellar ataxia (multiple types with
varying characteristics)
„pinal muscular atrophy
„teele-Richardson-Olszewski disease
Tabes dorsalis
 Immune „ystem
Introduction
xluid „ystems of the ïody
Innate Immunity
Adaptive or Acquired Immunity
Cell-mediated immunity
Humoral immunity
Immune ngineering

Cell „ignaling
ukaryotic Cells, ïacteria, and Viruses
 + /- 
*
 Physical barriers: skin & epithelial linings & cilia
 Chemical: acids, mucous & lysozymes
 Immune defenses ± internal
 Innate, non-specific, immediate response (min/hrs)
 Acquired ± attack a specific pathogen (antigen)
 „teps in Immune defense
 Detect invader/foreign cells
 Communicate alarm & recruit immune cells
 „uppress or destroy invader
 Discrimination of self from non-self

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Leukocytes in the ïlood

Red ïlood Cells 5.0 X 106/mm3

Platelets 2.5 X 105/mm3

Leukocytes 7.3 X 103/mm3

1 Neutrophil 50-70%

2 Lymphocyte 20-40%

3 Monocyte 1-6%

4 osinophil 1-3%

5 ïasophil <1%
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 Cell mediated immunity
 T cells must be activated
 Must have both surface antigen recognition and costimulation to activate
 T cell receptors recognise and bind to specific antigen presented with MHC
complexes
 T cell only activated if binds to antigen and receives costimulation
 Co-stimulation provided by cytokines or membrane proteins
 Need for co-stimulation prevents immune responses occurring accidentally
 Recognition (binding to receptor) without costimulation results in anergy (prolonged
state of inactivity) in both ï and T cells
 Once T cell co-stimulated it is activated
 Proliferates
 Differentiates (forms more highly specialised cells)
 Activation, proliferation and differentiation occurs in secondary lymphatic
organs and tissues
 Humoral (Antibody-mediated) immunity
 Mediated by ï cells
 Antigen can activate ï cell in
two ways:
 direct binding
 provokes less vigorous response
 ï cells process antigen (act as APC)
and display processed antigen with
MHC proteins
 TH cells recognise processed antigen
 TH cells provide co-stimulation for
ï cell

 Activated ï cell
 proliferates and differentiates
 plasma cells
 secrete antibodies with same
antigen binding properties as
receptors
 memory ï cells

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HIV/AID„ Patient Aging
Malaria-parasitic disease

Diabetes Rheumatoid arthritis

„moking causes cancer
 Immune ngineering

 The complexity of the

immune system can be
compared to that of the
brain.
 There is a vast number of
cells, molecules, and
organs that compose the
immune system, and these
have to act in concert, and
together with other vital
systems, so as to promote
and maintain life.
 Neither can the immune
system act in isolation to
maintain life, nor can a
higher organism live
without an immune
system.
 Artificial immune systems (AI„) compose a new
computational intelligence approach inspired by
theoretical and experimental immunology with
applications to problem solving.

 Like all new approach, the field still lacks a more

formal description and better theoretical foundations.

 The application of mathematical analysis and modeling

to immunology may result in outcomes such as a deeper
and more quantitative description of how the immune
system works, a more critical analysis of hypothesis, it
can assist in the prediction of behaviors and the design
of experiments.
 ^eneral Principles of Cell „ignaling
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There Are Three Known Classes of Cell-„urface Receptor Proteins:
Ion-Channel-linked, ^-Protein-linked, and nzyme-linked