THE HUMAN EYE AND THE COLOURFUL WORLD

1. The Human Eye

2. The Parts and their Functions of a Human Eye
3. Power of Accommodation, LDDV and Far Point
4. Defects of Vision and their Correction -
Myopia, Hypermetropia and Presbyopia
5. Refraction through a Prism
6. Expression for Refractive Index of Prism
7. Dispersion
8. Rainbow
9. Atmospheric Refraction – Tyndall Effect, Apparent position &
Twinkling of Stars, Delayed Sunrise & Sunset
10. Scattering of Light - Blue Colour of the Sky and Red Colour of
the Sun
THE HUMAN EYE
 Cross Section through a Human Eye

Aqueous
humour

Pupil
Cross Section through a Human Eye
 Parts and functions of a Human Eye
• The human eye is like a camera.
• Its lens forms an image on a light-sensitive screen called
the retina.
• Light enters the eye through a thin membrane called the
cornea.
• Cornea forms the transparent bulge on the front surface of
the eyeball.
• The eyeball is approximately spherical in shape with a
diameter of about 2.3 cm.
• Most of the refraction of light rays entering the eye occurs
at the outer surface of the cornea.
• The crystalline lens merely provides the finer adjustment
of focal lengthrequired to focus objects at different distances
on the retina.
• Iris is a dark muscular diaphragm behind the cornea and it
controls the size of the pupil.
• The pupil regulates and controls the amount of light
entering the eye.
• The eye lens forms an inverted real image of the object on
the retina.
• The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like
material.
• Its curvature can be modified to some extent by
the ciliary muscles.
• The change in curvature can thus change the focal
length of the lens.
• The retina is a delicate membrane having
enormous number of light-sensitive cells.
• The light-sensitive cells get activated upon
illumination and generate electric signals.
• These signals are sent to brain via optic nerves.
• The brain intercepts these signals and finally
processes the information for our perception.
 Power of
Accommodation
The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length is called
accommodation.

The eye lens is composed of a fibrous, jelly-like material and its

curvature can be modified by the ciliary muscles. Hence, the focal length
can be changed as per the requirement.

When the muscles are relaxed, the lens becomes thin. The radius of
curvature and hence the focal length increases. This enables us to see
the distant objects clearly.

When we look at the objects closer to they, ciliary muscles contract

decreasing the radius of curvature and hence the focal length decreases.
This enables us to see the nearby objects clearly.

Least Distance of Distinct Vision (LDDV):

The minimum distance, at which objects can be seen most
distinctly without strain, is called Least Distance of Distinct
Vision. For a normal eye, LDDV is 25 cm.

Far Point:
The farthest point up to which the eye can see objects clearly is called
far point of the eye. Far point for a normal eye is infinity. A normal
eye can see objects clearly that are between 25 cm and infinity.
DEFECTS OF VISION AND THEIR CORRECTION
Myopia or Short-sightedness or Near-sightedness
A person with myopic eye can see nearby objects clearly but
cannot see distant objects distinctly.
A person with this defect has the far point nearer than infinity.
Such a person may see clearly upto a distance of a few metres.
In myopic eye, the image of a distant object is formed in front of
the retina and not on the retinal itself.
This defect may arise due to
(i) excessive curvature of the eye lens (short focal length of the
eye lens)
or
(ii) Elongation of the eyeball.
Myopia can be corrected by using a concave lens of suitable
power (focal length).
Myopic Eye
O
I
Near Point

LDDV =
25 cm
O
I

LDDV = 25 cm

O
I

LDDV = 25 cm

O
I I

LDDV = 25 cm

Myopic Eye corrected with Concave Lens

Hypermetropia or Long-sightedness or Far-sightedness
•A person with hypermetropia can see distant objects
clearly but cannot see nearby objects distinctly.

•A person with this defect has the near point farther

away from the normal near point (25 cm).

•Such a person may has to keep a reading material

much beyond 25 cm from the eye for comfortable
reading.

•In hypermetropia eye, the image of a nearby object is

formed behind the retina and not on the retinal itself.

•This defect may arise due to

•(i) long focal length of the eye lens or

•(ii) Very small size of the eyeball.

•Hypermetropia can be corrected by using a convex

lens of suitable power (focal length).
 Hypermetropic Eye
O
I
Near Point
LDDV = 25 cm

O
I

LDDV = 25 cm

O
I

LDDV = 25 cm

O
II

LDDV = 25 cm

Hypermetropic Eye corrected with Convex Lens

Presbyopia
The power of accommodation of the eye usually decreases with
ageing.
For most of the people, near point gradually recedes away.
They can not see nearby objects comfortably and distinctly
without corrective
eye-glasses.
This defect is called presbyopia.
It arises due to
(i) gradual weakening of the ciliary muscles and
(ii) diminishing flexibility of the eye lens.
Sometimes, a person may suffer from both myopia and
hypermetropia. Such people require bi-focal lenses which
consists of both concave and convex
lenses. The upper portion is concave for distant vision and the
lower portion is convex for near vision.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT THROUGH A TRIANGULAR PRISM -
Activity
Refracting Surfaces

m
is
Pr
Eye

S
P R
Q e
i
N2
N1
Refraction of Light through Prism:

A
A

N1 N2
D δ
i e
Q
r1 O r2 R
P S
μ
B C Prism

Refracting Surfaces
i+e=A+δ

δ
(A + δm)
sin
2
μ=
A δm
sin
2 0 i=e i
DISPERSION OF WHITE LIGHT THROUGH A PRISM
The phenomenon of splitting a ray of white light into its constituent colours
(wavelengths) is called dispersion and the band of colours from violet to red
is called spectrum (VIBGYOR).
A

D δr
N δv R
O
Y
G
White B
light I
V

B C Screen

Cause of Dispersion:
sin i sin i Since μv > μr , rr > rv
μv = and μr =
sin rv sin rr So, the colours are refracted at different
angles and hence get separated.
 Dispersion can also be explained on the basis of Cauchy’s equation.
b c
μ=a + 2 + (where a, b and c are constants for the material)
λ λ4
Since λv < λ r , μv > μr

But δ = A (μ – 1) Therefore, δv > δr

So, the colours get separated with different angles of deviation.

Violet is most deviated and Red is least deviated.

Recombination of spectrum of white light:

A B’ C’ White
light

White
light

B C A
RAINBOW
Formation of Primary Rainbow

Rain drop

Sunlight

43º
41º
A line parallel to Sun’s ray

Eye
A rainbow is a natural spectrum which is caused by dispersion of
sunlight by tiny water droplets present in the atmosphere after a
rain shower.
The incident sunlight with suitable angle of incidence is refracted,
dispersed, internally reflected and finally refracted out by the rain
drops.
Due to the dispersion and internal reflection, different colours reach
the eye of the observer.
A rainbow is always formed in a direction opposite to that of the
Sun.There are primary and secondary rainbows.
In the primary rainbow the violet colour is on the inner arc and the
red colour is on the outer arc.
In the secondary rainbow, the sequence of colours is opposite due
to two internal reflections inside the rain drops.

Secondary
Primary
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
Refraction of light by earth’s atmosphere is called atmospheric refraction.

Flickering of objects above a fire:

The apparent random wavering or flickering of objects can be seen through
a turbulent stream of hot air rising above a fire.
The air just above the fire becomes hotter than the further up. The hotter air
is lighter than the cooler air above it, and has a refractive index slightly less
than that of the cooler air.
Since the physical conditions of the refracting medium (air) are not
stationary, the apparent position of the object, as seen through the hot air,
fluctuates. This wavering is therefore due to an effect of atmospheric
refraction on a small scale in the local environment.
 Twinkling of Stars:
The twinkling of a star is due to atmospheric
refraction of starlight.
The atmospheric refraction occurs in a medium of Real Apparent position
position of the Star

Refractive index increase

Density of Atmosphere &
gradually changing refractive index.
of the
Since the atmosphere bends starlight towards the Star
normal, the apparent position of the star is slightly
different from its actual position.
The star appears slightly higher (above) than its actual
position when viewed near the horizon.
This apparent position is not stationary, but keeps on
changing slightly, since the physical conditions of the
earth’s atmosphere are not stationary.
Since the stars are very distant, they approximate
point-sized sources of light.
As the path of rays of light coming from the star goes
on varying slightly, the apparent position of the star
fluctuates and the amount of light entering the eye
flickers- the star sometimes appear brighter, and at
some other time, fainter which gives the twinkling
effect.

Eye
Why Planets do not twinkle?
The planets are much closer to the earth, and are thus seen as extended
sources.
Since it is the collection of large number of point-sized sources of light, the
total variation in the amount of light entering into the eye from all the
individual sources will average out to zero, thereby nullifying the twinkling
effect.

Advance Sunrise Apparent position

and Delayed of the Sun
Sunset:
The Sun is visible to
Atmosphere
us about 2 minutes Horizon
before the actual
sunrise, and about
2 minutes after the
Real position
actual sunset Earth
of the Sun
because of
atmospheric
refraction.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT BY TINY WATER DROPLETS IN THE MIST
SCATTERING OF LIGHT BY SMOKE & COLLOIDAL PARTICLES
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
- Activity
Conc. Sulphuric acid

L1 L2 Screen

S
I

Sodium thio sulphate

solution (hypo)
SCATTERING OF LIGHT
Tyndall Effect:
The earth’s atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles.
These particles include smoke, tiny water droplets, suspended particles of
dust and molecules of air.
When a beam of light strikes such fine particles, the path of the beam
becomes visible.
The light reaches us, after being reflected diffusedly by these particles.
The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles gives rise to
Tyndall Effect.
Tyndall Effect can be seen when a fine beam of sunlight enters a smoke-filled
room through a small hole. In this, scattering of light makes the particles
visible.
It can also be seen when sunlight passes through a canopy of a dense forest.
In this, tiny water droplets in the mist scatter light.
The colour of the scattered light depends on the size of the scattering
particles.
Very fine particles scatter mainly blue light while particles of larger size
scatter light of longer wavelengths. If the size of the scattering particles is
large enough, then, the scattered light may even appear white.
Scattering of Light – Blue colour of the sky and Reddish appearance
of the Sun at Sun-rise and Sun-set:

Less Blue colour

is scattered

Horizon

Earth Atmosphere Other colours

mostly scattered
The molecules of the atmosphere and other particles that are smaller
than the longest wavelength of visible light are more effective in
scattering light of shorter wavelengths than light of longer
wavelengths. The amount of scattering is inversely proportional to the
fourth power of the wavelength. (Rayleigh Effect)

Light from the Sun near the horizon passes through a greater distance in
the Earth’s atmosphere than does the light received when the Sun is
overhead. The correspondingly greater scattering of short wavelengths
accounts for the reddish appearance of the Sun at rising and at setting.

When looking at the sky in a direction away from the Sun, we receive
scattered sunlight in which short wavelengths predominate giving the sky
its characteristic bluish colour.

More in Higher Class…