ELECTRICAL MOTORS

D. BHAVSINGH
D. BHAVSINGH
NITW
NITW
 WHAT IS AN ELECTRIC MOTOR?

• An electric motor converts electric energy into

mechanical motion
Electric Motor

• Electric motors are used to

perform a mechanical task by
Electric using electricity
• Mechanical energy used to e.g.
Energy • Rotate pump impeller, fan, blower
+ - • Drive compressors
• Lift materials
12V • Motors in industry: 70% of electrical load
 TOTAL ELECTRIC MOTORS
• There are many different types and classifications of electric
motors:
Permanent magnet DC motor Repulsion motor
Brushless DC motor Linear motor
Wound field motor Variable reluctance motor
Universal motors Unipolar stepper motor
Three phase induction motor Bipolar stepper
Three-phase AC synchronous motors Full step stepper motor
Two-phase AC Servo motors Half step stepper motor
torque motors Micro step stepper motor
Shaded-pole motor Switched reluctance motor
split-phase induction motor Shaded-pole synchronous motor
capacitor start motor Induction motor
Permanent Split-Capacitor (PSC) motor Coreless DC motor
Repulsion-start induction-run (RS-IR) motor Others......
Stepper motor
TYPE OF ELECTRIC MOTORS
 TYPE OF ELECTRIC MOTORS

• classification of AC and DC motors

Electric Motors

Alternating Current Direct Current (DC)

(AC) Motors Motors

Synchronous Induction Separately Self Excited

Excited

Single-Phase Three-Phase Series Compound Shunt

 Electric Motors
• DC motors still have many practical applications, such
automobile, aircraft, and portable electronics, in speed
control applications…
• An advantage of DC motors is that it is easy to control their
speed.
• Most DC machines are similar to AC machines: i.e. they have
AC voltages and current within them.
• DC machines have DC outputs just because they have a
mechanism converting AC voltages to DC voltages at their
terminals. This mechanism is called a commutator; therefore,
DC machines are also called commutating machines
What Is a Permanent Magnet?
• A piece of iron or steel which produces a magnetic field

• Found in nature as magnetite (Fe3O4) lodestones

• Magnetic field causes the permanent magnet to attract

iron and some other materials
• Two ends of the permanent magnet are usually
designated North and South
• Opposite magnet ends attract and like magnet ends repel
 What Is an Electromagnet?
• Electromagnets behave like permanent
magnets…

… but their magnetic field is not permanent

• Magnetic field is temporarily induced by an

electric current
 How Do You Make an Electromagnet?

• Start with an iron bar

 How Do You Make an Electromagnet?

• Start with an iron bar

• Wrap a wire around the iron bar
 How Do You Make an Electromagnet?

• Start with an iron bar

• Wrap a wire around the iron bar
• Connecting a battery causes a current to flow
in the wire

+ -
Current
 How Do You Make an Electromagnet?
• Start with an iron bar
• Wrap a wire around the iron bar
• Connecting a battery causes a current to flow in the wire
• The current induces a magnetic field creating an
electromagnet

NORTH SOUTH

+ -
Current
 How Do You Make an Electromagnet?

• Reversing the current direction, reverses the

polarity

SOUTH NORTH

- +
Current
 How Do You Make an Electromagnet?
• Reversing the current direction, reverses the
polarity
• If the current is stopped, the induced magnetic field
decays to 0

SOUTH NORTH

- +
Current
 DC Motors – Components

• Field pole
• North pole and south pole
• Receive electricity to form
magnetic field

• Armature
• Cylinder between the poles
• Electromagnet when current goes through
• Linked to drive shaft to drive the load

• Commutator
• Overturns current direction in armature
 What Is an Electric Motor?
• An electric motor has two basic parts:
– The stationary part is called the stator.
– The rotating part of the electric motor is called the
rotor.

ROTOR

STATOR
 What Is an Electric Motor?
• Electrical energy creates a rotating magnetic field
inside the motor causing the rotor to rotate,
creating mechanical motion

ROTOR

STATOR
 How Does a Permanent Magnet DC Motor Work?

• "DC Motors" use magnets to produce motion

– Permanent magnets

SOUTH NORTH
How Does a Permanent Magnet DC Motor Work?
• "DC Motors" use magnets to produce motion
– Permanent magnets
– An electromagnet armature

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotating Armature

• Electromagnet armature is mounted on axle so that

it can rotate

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Commutator and Brushes
• Electromagnet armature is mounted on axle so that
it can rotate
• A commutator makes an electrical contact with the
motor's brushes

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Commutator Structure

• Commutator is comprised of two "near-halves" of a

ring
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Commutator Structure
• Commutator is comprised of two "near-halves" of a ring
• Mounted on the armature's axle to rotate with the rotor

Armature
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Commutator Structure
• Armature's windings are connected to the
commutator
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Commutator and Brushes
• Armature's windings are connected to the commutator
• Brushes connect the commutator to the battery
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Electromagnet Polarization
• Current flows through the armature's windings,
which polarizes the electromagnet

+ -

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation
• The like magnets (NORTH-NORTH and SOUTH-SOUTH) repel
• As the like magnets repel, the armature rotates, creating mechanical
motion

+ -

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation Direction?

• What direction will the armature spin?

• Clockwise? Counterclockwise?
+ -

Counterclockwise ?

SOUTH NORTH

Clockwise ?
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Rotation Direction?
• To determine the direction of the motor's rotation, we need to use
the "Left Hand Rule"
 Left Hand Rule

• Start with two opposite

ends of a magnet SOUTH

NORTH
 Left Hand Rule: Magnetic Field
• The magnetic field (B) is from
the NORTH pole to the SOUTH
opposite SOUTH pole

• The pointing finger

follows B into
screen
NORTH B
 Left Hand Rule: Current Flow
• Current flows in a wire through
the magnetic field from left to
right SOUTH
I1
• The middle finger follows I1
right, or I2 left

I2

NORTH
 Left Hand Rule: Force
• The force, F, acting on each wire
is in the direction of theF1
SOUTH
thumb
I1

• The wire with I1

is pushed up, I2
I2 down
NORTH
F2
Left Hand Rule: Force
• The magnitude of F is give by:

F1 SOUTH
|F|=|I|**|B|
I1
where  is the length of
the wire in B
I2

NORTH
F2

 Left Hand Rule: Current Loop

• If the current flows in a loop,

the force(s) will cause
F theSOUTH

I
loop to rotate

NORTH
F
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation
• Magnetic field is from right to left
• Imagine current flows out of the screen in this cross
section
+ -

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation

• Magnetic field is from right to left

• Imagine current flows out of the screen in this cross section
• The force causes the armature to rotate clockwise
+ -

SOUTH NORTH
Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation
• At some point, the commutator halves will rotate away
from the brushes
• Momentum keeps the electromagnet and the commutator
ring rotating
+ -

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation
• When the commutator halves reconnect with the
other brush, the current in the windings is reversed

+ -

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation
• When the commutator halves reconnect with the
other brush, the current in the windings is reversed
• The polarity is reversed and the armature continues
to rotate + -

SOUTH NORTH
 Permanent Magnet DC Motor Rotation
• Magnetic field is from right to left
• Imagine current flows out of the screen in this cross section
• The force causes the armature to rotate clockwise
+ -

SOUTH NORTH
ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE TORQUE TAMING
We need to reverse the direction of the current on each half cycle.

Transform original torque versus

angle curve from:


0 180 360

TO 
0 180 360

Now torque always applied in same direction
inducing loop to spin continuously in same direction.
ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE TORQUE TAMING

This is accomplished by using a commutator (either mechanical or electronic cycle).


0 180 360


Metal ring attached to shaft split in two sections

How it Works….
ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE TORQUE TAMING

The figure illustrates one method by which the commutation function might be
accomplished. Rather than hard wiring the current source to the coil, the current is
conducted through sliding contacts (brushes) connected to the current source. The
brushes ride on the ends of the coil wires, thus conducting current through the coil.
In this simplified motor, the brushes switch coil connections about once every 180 o
of rotation. Therefore, the direction of current flow remains fixed with respect to the
magnetic field.
ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE TORQUE TAMING

The torque produced by this design momentarily goes to zero

every half cycle. Stall is possible, also start up may require a
small push. In addition to this the torque versus rotation angle is
not uniform
ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE TORQUE TAMING
 ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE FIELD TAMING

B
To obtain a more even 
torque, the magnetic field B
lines should look something 
F
like: 
B 
B

B


F


B


B
And how do you get a magnetic field
with that shape?
 ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE FIELD TAMING

To obtain a more even poles of magnet

torque, the magnetic field
lines should look something
like:

B

Rotor

B field lines follow the path of least reluctance, so the

curved poles create roughly a radial field pattern.
ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE FIELD TAMING

Redesign the permanent magnet poles.

Insert soft iron rotor

ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE FIELD TAMING

Motor dimensions: Torque in radial field

Radius r
Depth    2rBI

B

Rotor
 ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE FIELD TAMING

In a practical motor design, use many turns of wire on the rotor (rather than just
one) to increase the torque.


B

Rotor
ROTATING DC MOTOR PRINCIPLE FIELD TAMING
 What Is Motor Control ?
• The controlled application of electrical energy to a motor to
elicit a desired mechanical response

– Start / Stop
– Speed
– Torque
– Position

• Significant amount of electronics may be required to

control the operation of some electric motors
Control of Electromagnetics
• Much of the physical design of an electric motor and its control
system are related to the switching of the electromagnetic field

• There is a mechanical force which acts on a current carrying wire

within a magnetic field

• The mechanical force is perpendicular to the wire and the magnetic

field

• The relative magnetic fields between the rotor and stator are arranged
so that a torque is created, causing the rotor to rotate about its axis
Controlling a Permanent Magnet DC Motor

• Bi-directional PM DC motors are controlled with an "H-Bridge"

circuit consisting of the motor and four power switches
 Turning On a PMDC Motor
• One switch is closed in each leg of the "H"
• One switch is open in each leg of the "H"

Current
Turning On a PMDC Motor in Other Direction

• One switch is closed in each leg of the "H"

• One switch is open in each leg of the "H”

Current
Controlling a Permanent Magnet DC (PMDC) Motor

• Unidirectional motors are controlled by a “half-H”

bridge circuit

Current
 DC MOTORS

• Speed control without impact power supply

quality
• Changing armature voltage
• Changing field current

• Restricted use
• Few low/medium speed applications
• Clean, non-hazardous areas

• Expensive compared to AC motors

• Relationship between speed, field flux and armature voltage
•
Back electromagnetic force: E = KN
Torque: T = KIa

• E = electromagnetic force developed at armature terminal (volt)

•  = field flux which is directly proportional to field current
• N = speed in RPM (revolutions per minute)
• T = electromagnetic torque
• Ia = armature current
• K = an equation constant
 DC MOTORS

• Separately excited DC motor:- field current supplied from

a separate force
• Self-excited DC motor: shunt motor Speed constant
independent of
load up to certain
torque

Field winding parallel

with armature
winding Speed control: insert
Current = field current resistance in
+ armature current
armature or field
current
 Self-excited DC motor: series motor

• Speed restricted to
Suited for high
starting torque: 5000 RPM
• Avoid running with
cranes, hoists
no load: speed
uncontrolled

• Field winding in series

with armature winding
• Field current =
armature current
 Self-excited DC motor : compound motor

Suited for high Good torque and

starting torque if high stable speed
% compounding:
cranes, hoists

Higher %
compound in
Field winding in series = high
series and starting torque
parallel with
armature winding
 Power flow and losses in DC machines

Unfortunately, not all electrical power is converted to mechanical

power by a motor and not all mechanical power is converted to
electrical power by a generator…

The efficiency of a DC machine is:

Pout
 100%
or
Pin
Pin  Ploss
 100%
Pin
 The losses in DC machines

There are five categories of losses occurring in DC machines.

1. Electrical or copper losses – the resistive losses in the armature and field windings
of the machine.

Armature loss: PA  I A2 RA

Field loss: PF  I F2 RF

Where IA and IF are armature and field currents and RA and RF are armature and field
(winding) resistances usually measured at normal operating temperature.
 The losses in DC machines

2. Brush (drop) losses – the power lost across the contact

potential at the brushes of the machine.

PBD  VBD I A

Where IA is the armature current and VBD is the brush voltage drop.
The voltage drop across the set of brushes is approximately constant
over a large range of armature currents and it is usually assumed to
be about 2 V.

Other losses are exactly the same as in AC machines…

 THE LOSSES IN DC MACHINES

3. Core losses – hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. They

vary as B2 (square of flux density) and as n1.5 (speed of rotation of
the magnetic field).
4. Mechanical losses – losses associated with mechanical effects: friction
(friction of the bearings) and windage (friction between the moving parts of the
machine and the air inside the casing). These losses vary as the cube of rotation
speed n3.

5. Stray (Miscellaneous) losses – losses that cannot be classified in any of

the previous categories. They are usually due to inaccuracies in modeling. For
many machines, stray losses are assumed as 1% of full load.
 THE POWER-FLOW DIAGRAM

On of the most convenient technique to account for power losses

in a machine is the power-flow diagram.
for a dc
motor:

Electrical power is input to the machine, and the electrical and brush
losses must be subtracted. The remaining power is ideally converted
from electrical to mechanical form at the point labeled as Pconv.
 BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR

• Similar to a permanent magnet DC motor

• Rotor is always the permanent magnet (internal or external)
• Design eliminates the need for brushes by using a more complex drive
circuit
• Advantages:
+ High efficiency
+ High reliability
+ Low EMI
+ Good speed control
• Disadvantages:
– May be more expensive than "brushed" DC motors
– More complex and expensive drive circuit than "brushed" DC
motors
 WHY A BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR ?
• Many of the limitations of the classic permanent magnet "brushed"
DC motor are caused by the brushes pressing against the rotating
commutator creating friction
– As the motor speed is increased, brushes may not remain in
contact with the rotating commutator
– At higher speeds, brushes have increasing difficulty in maintaining
contact
– Sparks and electric noise may be created as the brushes
encounter flaws in the commutator surface or as the commutator
is moving away from the just energized rotor segment
– Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the
commutator itself is subject to wear and maintenance
• Brushless DC motors avoid these problems with a modified design,
but require a more complex control system
 How Does a Brushless DC Motor Work ?

• A brushless DC motor uses electronic sensors to detect the position

of the rotor without using a metallic contact

• Using the sensor's signals, the polarity of the electromagnets’ is

switched by the motor control drive circuitry

• The motor can be easily synchronized to a clock signal, providing

precise speed control

• Brushless DC motors may have:

– An external PM rotor and internal electromagnet stator
– An internal PM rotor and external electromagnet stator
 Example Brushless DC Motor Operation

• This example brushless DC motor has:

– An internal, permanent magnet rotor
Example Brushless DC Motor Operation

• This example brushless DC motor has:

– An external, electromagnet stator
 Example Brushless DC Motor Operation
• This example brushless DC motor has:
– An external, electromagnet stator, with magnetic
field sensors
 Brushless DC Motor Construction

A
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Brushless DC Motor Operation

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 Brushless DC Motor Operation

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Brushless DC Motor Operation

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Brushless DC Motor Operation

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Brushless DC Motor Operation

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Brushless DC Motor Operation
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Brushless DC Motor Operation

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B C
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Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit

A1 B1 C1
A

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit

A1 B1 C1
A

1
a

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit

A1 B1 C1
A

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
2
BRUSHLESS DC MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUIT

A1 B1 C1
A

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
3
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit

A1 B1 C1
A

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
4
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit

A1 B1 C1
A

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
5
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit

A1 B1 C1
A

6
a

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
Brushless DC Motor
Control Circuit

A1 B1 C1
A

1
a

c com b

C B
A2 B2 C2
Types of Electric Motors
Permanent Magnet Stepper Brushless DC
DC Motor Motor Motor

Advantages: + Low cost + Position control + High efficiency

(high volume) (low cost + High reliability
+ Simple operation control circuits) + Low EMI
+ Speed control
Disadvantages: - Medium efficiency - Poor efficiency - Maybe higher
cost
- Poor reliability - Digital interface - Complex control
- Bad EMI - High cost
Brushless DC Motor
• Similar to a permanent magnet DC motor
• Rotor is always the permanent magnet (internal or external)
• Design eliminates the need for brushes by using a more complex drive
circuit
• Advantages:
+ High efficiency
+ High reliability
+ Low EMI
+ Good speed control
• Disadvantages:
– May be more expensive than "brushed" DC motors
– More complex and expensive drive circuit than "brushed" DC
motors
Modeling a DC motor Replaced by a
permanent
magnet

if

Electrical Part Mechanical Part

Electromechanical part
Modeling the Armature Controlled DC Motor
SIMULINK MODEL

Ravi Kumar Jatoth, Asst Prof, Dept of ECE 100

 3 assumptions in modeling DC motor
Assumption 1: The air gap flux is proportional to the field current

  if   k 1i f

Assumption 2: The torque developed on the motor shaft is proportional to the

product of armature current and the air gap flux

  ia   k 2 ia  k1k 2ia i f

2 configurations can be made in controlling DC motor

Our focus
(1) Armature-controlled DC motor (if = constant)
(2) Field-controlled DC motor (ia = constant)
3 assumptions in modeling DC motor (cont.)

Assumption 3: The back-emf is proportional to the velocity of the motor shaft


vb   m

Our objective is to find the transfer function of

 m (s)
E a (s)
 Armature-Controlled DC motor
Electrical part:
By applying KVL, we obtain the differential equation:

dia
ea (t )  La  Ra ia  vb
dt
Take the Laplace transform yields to:

Ea ( s)   La s  Ra  I a ( s)  Vb ( s) Equation 1

Mechanical part:

d 2 m d m
 m (t )  J m 2
 Bm
dt dt
In Laplace

 
 m ( s )  J m s 2 m  B m s  m  J m s 2  B m s  m Equation 2
 Armature-Controlled DC motor (cont.)
Electro-Mechanical part:
Relationship between Torque & armature current

 m  k1k 2i f ia  m  k m I a (s)
km Equation 3
Motor torque constant


Relationship between back-emf & angular speed

vb   m vb  kb  m
Back-emf constant

Vb  kb s m Equation 4
 1
Ia (s)   Ea (s) Vb (s) Equation 1
 Las  Ra 
 m  km Ia Equation 3

1
m   m (s)
 
J m s 2  Bm s Equation 2

Vb  kb s m Equation 4

We can draw in term of block diagram

I a (s )  m (s)
Ea (s)  1  m (s) 1
km
sL a  R a s2J m  Bm s


Vb (s)

sk b
 G3 ( s )
G1 ( s) G2 ( s)

I a (s )  m (s)
Ea (s)  1  m (s) 1
km
sL a  R a s2JmDms


Vb (s)

sk b

H (s )

Thus, the transfer function for DC motor

 m ( s) G1 ( s)G2 ( s )G3 ( s )

Ea ( s ) 1  G1 ( s )G2 ( s)G3 ( s ) H ( s)
• .
Thank
You