Learning

Definition Significance Theories Strategies of reinforcement

Learning is an important variable in human behaviour.

Organisation

s survival and success depend upon continuous learning of employees

Through

learning opportunities, employees acquire knowledge, attitudes , skills and stay motivated

Learning
Learning Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience. In other words, learning is understood as the modification of behaviour through practice, training or experience
It

is to be remembered that learning involves modification of behaviour and all behaviour modification is not learning

Nature of Learning (Components)

Learning involves change although change may be for good or bad Change should be relatively permanent It should be reflected in behaviour It should occur as a result of experience, practice or training The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to sustain Learning occurs through out ones life and not restricted to schools, and educational institutions

Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response.

stimulus-Response Repeated actions lead to desired behaviour connection

 Ivan Pavlov popularized this Classical Conditioning He made use of dog to demonstrate the conditioning classical conditioning is a form of learning where two stimuli become associated so strongly that the presence of only one of the stimuli will elicit the same response as if both were present.

Key Concepts Unconditioned stimulus (meat) Unconditioned response (salivation) Conditioned stimulus (Bell) Conditioned response (salivation in reaction to the bell alone) Unconditioned Stimulus (natural) Conditioned stimulus (neutral)

Conditioned response (learning)

Classical Conditioning (Contd)

In an organisational setting, there are variety of behaviours we can see classical conditioning work Organisations are spending lot of time on ads to provide the link of the information value of a stimulus to prospective customer s buying behaviour. For instance, Fabindias promotion of its products

Evaluation of Classical conditioning

It represents only a small part of human learning They only explain simple reflexive behaviour and not complex one Organisations are employing this concept to increase the sales of their products Has got limited scope in OB

Theories of Learning (contd)

Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment.

stimulusresponse connection

Key Concepts Conditioned (learned) behavior Reinforcement

 This was popularised by B.F.Skinner Behaviour is a function of consequences Behaviour is likely to be repeated if the consequences are favourable. It will not be repeated if the consequences are unfavourable A behavior followed by a reinforcing stimulus results in an increased probability of that behavior occurring in the future Operant conditioning is when you do one thing, another thing happens, and you therefore learn to do the first thing in order to cause the second thing to happen

Examples of Operant Behaviors and Their Consequences

BEHAVIORS The Individual
 works and  is late to work and  enters a restaurant and  enters a football stadium and

CONSEQUENCES is paid. is docked pay. eats. watches a football game.

 enters a grocery store and

buys food.

Operant Conditioning (Contd) Boss assures his subordinate that he would be rewarded in the next performance appraisal, provided employee works overtime. If he worked hard , he will be rewarded by the manager and worker repeats his hard work with enthusiasm. This is an illustration of operant conditioning In CC, individual is reactive and in OC ,he is pro active. There is no choice in CC and in OC, there is a choice. Response is elicited in CC and it is emitted in OC

Theories of Learning (contd)

Cognitive Theory of learning This theory assumes that organism learns the meaning of various objects and events and learned responses depending upon the meaning assigned to stimuli. Learner forms a cognitive structure in memory which preserves and organizes information about the various events that occur in a learning situation The role of an organism in receiving , memorizing , retrieving and interpreting stimuli and reacting is recognized and emphasized.

Cognitive Theory (Contd) This theory is very much alive and relevant Expectations , attributions and locus of control are all cognitive concepts and represent the purposefulness of Organisational Behaviour There is a relationship between cognitions and behaviour

Theories of Learning (contd)

Social-Learning Theory
People can learn through observation and direct experience. This is called observational learning This emphasises the ability of an individual to learn by observing models-parents, teachers, bosses, peers and others. Many patterns of behaviour are learned by watching the behaviour of others and observing its consequences for them.

Social Learning Theory

This theory is an extension of operant conditioning and it involves observational learning and the importance of perception in learning.

The influence of model is central here.

Four processes determine the influence. They are 1. Attentional process: people learn from a model only when they recognise & pay attention to its critical features. 2. Retention processes: extent to which one remembers the models action after the model is no longer available. 3. Motor reproduction processes: our ability to act on the memory representations 4. Reinforcement processes: extent to which one repeats the above behaviours if positive incentives are provided.

Theories of Learning (contd)

Shaping Behavior
Systematically reinforcing each successive step that moves an individual closer to the desired response. Key Concepts Reinforcement is required to change behavior. Some rewards are more effective than others. The timing of reinforcement affects learning speed and permanence.

Reinforcement
This refers to the psychological process of motivating a person It will be any action that the person finds rewarding. Common reinforcement gestures include pat on the back, increase in pay, given a day off or a citation This is something which enhances the strength of the response and prompts the repetitions of the behaviour

Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement Providing a reward for a desired behavior. Negative reinforcement Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs. Punishment Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior. Extinction Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation.

Positive Reinforcement
This strengthens and enhances behaviour by presenting a desirable consequence. A manager praises his subordinate for his quality work performance and if the subordinate continues to produce quality work and this is type of positive reinforcement

Principles of Positive Reinforcement

Contingent reinforcementonly reinforce desired behavior Immediate reinforcementreinforce immediately after desired behavior occurs Reinforcement sizea larger amount of reinforcement has a greater effect Reinforcement deprivationdeprivation increases effect on future behavior

Example of Contingent Reinforcement

NO
Manager and employee set goal Does employee achieve goal?

Manager is silent or reprimands employee

YES
Antecedent (precedes the behavior) Employee Task Behavior

Manager compliments employee for accomplishments Reinforcement Contingent on Consequence

Consequences (result of the behavior)

Organisational Rewards Used by Organizations

MATERIAL REWARDS Pay Pay raises Stock options Profit sharing Deferred compensation Bonuses/bonus plans Incentive plans Expense accounts SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS Company automobiles Health insurance plans Pension contributions Vacation and sick leave Recreation facilities Child-care support Club privileges Parental leave REWARDS FROM THE TASK Sense of achievement Jobs with more responsibility Job autonomy/self-direction Performing important tasks STATUS SYMBOLS Corner offices Offices with windows Carpeting Drapes Paintings Watches Rings Private restrooms SELF-ADMINISTERED REWARDS Self-congratulation Self-recognition Self-praise Self-development through expanded knowledge/skills Greater sense of self-worth

SOCIAL/INTERPERSONAL REWARDS Praise Developmental feedback Smiles, pats on the back, other nonverbal signals Requests for suggestions Invitations to coffee/lunch Wall plaques

Negative Reinforcement
Any unpleasant event that precedes the employee behaviour is removed when the desired behaviour occurs. Such procedures will increase the likelihood of the desired behaviour to occur Managers make use of negative reinforcement when an employee does not perform something which is desirable or necessary

Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated. Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated.

Intermittent Reinforcement: Can be of a ratio or interval type. Ratio schedules depend on how many responses the subject makes. The individual is reinforced after giving a certain number of specific types of behaviour. Interval schedules depend on how much time has passed since the previous reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement (contd)

Fixed-Interval Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. Eg. Salary

Variable-Interval Schedule Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses. Eg. A series of randomly timed unannounced visits to a company office by the corporate audit staff.

Fixed-ratio schedule: Rewards are initiated after a fixed or a constant number of responses. Eg. Piece-rate incentive plan

Variable-ratio schedule: The reward varies relative to the behaviour of the individual. Eg. Salespeople on commission.

Fixed-ratio

How to Make Punishment Effective Praise in public, punish in private Pinpoint and specifically describe the undesirable behavior to be avoided Develop alternative desired behavior Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events

Learning and Organisational Behaviour

There is little Organisational behaviour not directly or indirectly influenced by learning Skills, knowledge, attitude , manners etc are learned The specific application of learning to OB include using lotteries to reduce absenteeism, enhancing employee discipline, developing training programmes in order to provide a model for the trainees to emulate and to practice behaviours Principles of learning also facilitate manager to learn effectively