Chapter 1 Introduction to Geology

Dr. Adly Kh. Al-Saafin AlEngg. / Env. Geology Earth Sciences Dept. KFUPM - Dhahran

OBJECTIVES
Distinguish geology between physical and historical Describe the nature of scientific inquiry Discuss some geologic concepts: Catastrophism concepts: and Uniformitarianism Understanding the theory for the origin of the solar system and Earth Describe the earth's basic internal structure Describe the face of the Earth Understand the Rock Cycle and how the formation of various types. types.

OUTLINE
1. Define geology 2. Geologic Concepts 3. Geologic time 4. Nature of scientific inquiry 5. Origin of Earth & Solar System 6. Earths internal structure 7. The Face of Earth 8. Earth as a system 9. Rocks and the Rock Cycle

1. Define Geology
Definition: what is geology geology? Geology: Geology: the science that pursues
an understanding of planet The Earth. our

Components of Geology
Geology is divided into two broad areas:
1. Physical geology: geology:
Examines materials Earth is made of and processes occurring on and beneath the surface of the earth. Deals with the rock materials and geologic processes

2. Historical geology: geology:

Examines origin of the Earth, origin of life, and changes in Earth and life through time. Deals with the layered rock record and fossils

Physical Geology
Physical Geology Deals With:
1. Earth materials: materials:
 atoms, minerals, rocks, salt, gems, sand, gravel, clay, soil, atmosphere, hydrosphere, organisms, building materials, coal, oil, gas, water, soil, salt, jewelry, etc.

2. Earth (Geologic) processes processes:

 earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, continental drift, weathering, landslides, subsidence and collapse, tides, geysers, erosion, etc.

2. Geologic Concepts
Catastrophism; states that Earth's landscapes have been
developed primarily by great catastrophes. catastrophes.
Features such as mountains and canyons were produced by sudden and often worldwide disasters. disasters

Uniformitarianism: one of the fundamental principles of

modern geology advanced by James Hutton in the late 1700s, states that: the physical, chemical, and biological operations that operate today have also operated in the geologic past.
The idea is often summarized as

"the

present is the key to the past. past.

3. Geologic Time
Geologists are now able to assign fairly accurate dates to events in Earth history. history.

i. Relative dating ii. Absolute dating

i. Relative dating and the geologic

time scale

Relative dating means that dates are placed How are relative ages of rocks classified?
Ages of rocks are classified into several categories based on the fossils assemblage. assemblage.

in their proper sequence or order without knowing their age in years years.

 The magnitude of geologic time; involves vast times time;

millions or billions of years.

Fossils
The fossils evolution is a clock of relative time, it is succession called the Principle of faunal succession.
YOUNGEST mammals reptiles amphibians insects plants fishes organisms with shells multimulti-celled organisms oneone-celled organisms OLDEST

allows geologists to identify rocks of same age in different places.

The Geologic Time Scale

How old is the Earth?

4.5 to 4.6 billion years (4,500,000,000 to 4,600,000,000 years) determined through radiometric dating (Uranium, Thorium Uranium, Thorium).

4. Nature of scientific inquiry

 Science assumes the natural world is
consistent and predictable manner. manner  Goal of science: science:
understand underlying patterns in nature that lets us make predictions. predictions.

 Scientists collect data through: through:

(i) Observation, and (ii) Measurements NOTE: NOTE There is no fixed path that scientists follow and leading to scientific knowledge..

Nature of scientific inquiry

Things happen is explained using a:  Hypothesis: Hypothesis: Ideas to explain observations or (untested explanation).  Theory: a well-tested hypothesis. Theory: well A Theory is widely accepted explanation by scientific community.

Nature of scientific inquiry

Four basic steps: steps:
1. COLLECT
THE measurements FACTS: FACTS Observations &

2. DEVELOP HYPOTHESIS (one or more) 3. TEST HYPOTHESIS: HYPOTHESIS:

REJECT, MODIFY, or ACCEPT

4. THEORY

Geology and Man

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Urbanization programs Natural resources Briefly outline the importance of Natural hazards Geology in the modern society. Man-made hazards Global problems

NOTICE

Aspects of Physical Geology

1. Earths Materials
Mineral & energy resources, economic / environmental issues

2. External Geologic Processes

Effect of water, rivers, wind, and ice on landscapes

2. Internal Geologic Processes

Earthquakes, magnetism, heat flow, plate tectonics

3. Natural Resources
Water, minerals, oil and gas

5. Earths Origin & Formation

5. Early evolution of Earth

How was Earth formed in space?

Earth Formation:
1. Most researchers believe that Earth and the other planets formed at the same time and time, Sun. 2. It is formed from same material of the Sun

Origin of planet Earth: Earth: Nebular hypothesis: hypothesis:

Solar system formed from giant cloud mostly of hydrogen (H) and helium (He), and a small He) percentage of (heavy elements). elements)

Origin of the Solar System

Giant Cloud Rotating Disk

Nebular Hypothesis
Planets

Star-like Bodies

Nebular hypothesis
Formation of the solar system according to the nebular hypothesis. hypothesis.
A. The birth of our solar system began as dust and gases (nebula nebula) B. The nebula contracted into a rotating disk C. Cooling of the nebular cloud caused rocky and metallic material to condense into tiny solid particles. particles C. Repeated collisions caused the dust-size particles asteroid(starto gradually gather into asteroid-size (star-like) bodies. bodies D. Within a few million years these bodies accreted into the planets planets.

Label the sequence of events describing the nebular origin of the solar system

(A) ( ) The early of the nebula a dust Cooling solar system is causes condensation ofnebula). into solid and gas cloud (nebula) dust particles. (B) Contraction of the nebula into a rotating of planets. disk. ( ) Accretion disk. (C) ) Cooling of of the nebula causes ( Contraction the nebula into a condensation of dust into solid rotating disk. particles. particles. ( ) The early solar system is a dust and (D) gas cloud (nebula). Accretion of planets. planets.

The Solar System

The Earth

6. The face of Earth

The face of Earth Earths surface: surface:

1.Continents 1.Continents 2.Oceans 2.Oceans

Earths Solid Surface

1. Continents: Continents:
 Mountain belts
 Most prominent feature of continents

 The stable interior (craton)

 Composed of shields and stable platforms

EARTH'S MOUNTAIN

This map shows the general distribution of Earth's rocks: (1) shields, (2) stable platforms, and (3) mountain belts.

The face of Earth

The face of Earth

2. Oceans: Oceans:
 Continental margin
Includes the continental shelf, continental slope, and the continental rise Abyssal plain Oceanic trench Seamounts Most prominent topographic feature on Earth composed of igneous rock that has been fractured and uplifted.

 Deep-ocean basin Deep

 Oceanic ridge system

Parts of Ocean
Continental Margin Oceanic ridge

DeepDeep-ocean basin

Choose the appropriate label for each letter on the diagram

(F) ocean crust ( ) ocean crust (B) continental margin shoreline ( ) continental margin shoreline (D) continental shelf ( ) continental shelf (C) continental slope ( ) continental slope (E) continental rise ( ) continental rise (G) sediment ( ) sediment (A) abyssal plain ( ) abyssal plain

7. Earths Internal Structure

7. Earths internal structure

Earths layered structure: structure:

1. Core 2. Mantle 3. Crust

Earths layered structure

Earth's Internal Structure

Earths internal structure

i. Layers defined by composition: composition:

1. crust

Oceanic 0 - 6 km (young, < 180 m.y.) Continental 0 -34 km (older, up to 3.8 b.y.)

2. mantle 3. core

Upper 34 - 670 km Lower 670 - 2900 km

Outer (liquid) 2900 - 5160 km Inner (solid) 5160 - 6370 km

Earths internal structure

ii. Layers defined by physical properties

1. Lithosphere (Crust + upper most Mantle) 2. Asthenosphere 3. Mesosphere 4. Outer Core 5. Inner Core Mantle

Earths layered structure

Label the diagram with the appropriate terms

( ) oceanic crust (H) oceanic crust ( ) inner core (A) inner core

( ) mantle ( ) lithosphere (G) mantle (E) lithosphere ( ) mesosphere ( ) continental crust (C) mesosphere (F) continental crust

( ) asthenosphere ( ) outer core (D) asthenosphere (B) outer core

8. Earth System

8. Earth as a system
Earth is a dynamic planet with many interacting parts (spheres). (spheres).
Types of System: System: Open System Closed System Isolated System

Earth System & Subsystems

Earth as a System
Earth is a dynamic planet with many interacting parts (spheres). Earth System Science:

Earth Closed System Earth is a system composed of numerous Earths Subsystem subsystems,Systems interacting parts or Open and Earth system study employs an interdisciplinary approach to solve global environmental problems.

Earth Subsystems
Earth is composed of four subsystems: subsystems:

1. 2. 3. 4.

Hydrosphere Atmosphere Lithosphere (Solid Earth) Biosphere

Earth as a System
The Earth system is powered by: by: i. The Sun drives external processes at Earths surface: surface
 Atmosphere  Hydrosphere

ii. The Earths interior activity drives internal

processes: processes  Volcanic eruptions  Earthquakes (EQs)

Hydrosphere
Water portion of Earth
 Oceans (most prominent): 71% of surface of Earth  Surface water (streams, lakes,)  Underground water,  Glaciers, Glaciers,  Clouds

Atmosphere

Blanket of air surrounding Earth

 Protection from Suns heat & UV  Strong interactions with surface

Biosphere

All life on Earth

 Concentrated near Earths surface  Strong relationship with hydrosphere and solid earth

atmosphere,

Solid Earth Lithosphere Lithosphere

Rock Cycle & Basic Rock Types

1. Igneous rocks: rocks:
Cooling and solidification of magma (molten rock) Examples: (Examples granite and basalt)

2. Sedimentary rocks: rocks:

Accumulate in layers at Earths surface Sediments are derived preexisting rocks from weathering of

Examples: (Examples sandstone and limestone).

3. Metamorphic rocks: rocks:

Formed by changing preexisting sedimentary or other metamorphic rocks Examples: (Examples gneiss and marble) igneous,

Driving forces are increased heat and pressure

9.Rock 9.Rock Cycle

Rock Cycle discusses the origin of the three rock types, Rock Cycle describes the loop that involves the processes by which one rock changes to another, Rock Cycle illustrates the various processes and paths as earth materials change both on the surface and inside the Earth.

The Rock Cycle

Minerals & Rocks