The Application of Biotechnology in Organic Agriculture

It is common knowledge that there are millions of hectares in the world today either highly acidic or alkaline that are unproductive or crop yields are so poor and are left untilled.

In China there is a vast area of these problem soils especially in the northeastern part and going to Xinjiang Province.

However, the harnessing of beneficial microorganisms in the production of quality organic fertilizer may provide hope for these soils to once again become productive.

An Experimental Station in Yucheng, Shandong which has been conducting agricultural research for 43 years among which was on soil salinity management reported that farmers were able to obtain good yields with crop rotation: wheat in fall, corn in summer then followed by another wheat crop.

The way they manage the serious problem of saline soils consisted of digging deep drainage ditches to lower the water table way below the root zone.

Worldwide, there is growing interest in the use of organic fertilizer due to depletion in the soil fertility and because the continuous use of chemical fertilizers create potential polluting effects due to chemicals in the environment.

In northern China several investigators reported that the use of organic fertilizer and green manuring made possible and improve the yields of crops including forage for animal feeds.

Managing Saline Soils:

Salinity problems are caused from the accumulation of soluble salts in the root zone. These excess salts reduce plant growth and vigor by altering water uptake and causing ion-specific toxicities or imbalances.

It is important to know the level of salinity as this will determine the following: 1. The types of plants that will grow in the soil and their yield potential. 2. The characteristics of a soil. 3. The quality of water for irrigation, domestic, industrial and other uses. 4. The extent of the problem.

General Signs of Salinity Manifestations: 1. Leaves appear smaller and darker than normal. 2. Marginal and tip burning of leaves occur followed by yellowing and bronzing. 3. Plants grow poorly and in severe conditions they dont survive. 4. White crust forms over bare ground. 5. Overall yield will decline, and 6. Plants are more susceptible to stress and prone to on-set of diseases.

Part I. In Relation to Organic Agriculture A. Middle East Experience

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In the 80s while doing some consulting works with the Saudi authorities and some private landowners the author established thousands of hectares of alfalfa or lucerne (Fig. 1) in Sayhat, AlKhobar, wheat plantation in Al-Kharj (Fig. 2), vegetable farms in Al-Jumum, vineyards in Taif and some other places within the Kingdom. The desert lands are very saline with pH as high as 11.0 and salinity at 10-15 dS/m about 8-9,000 ppm/mgl.

Fig. 1. An alfalfa plantation in Al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia.

Fig. 2. A wheat farm in Al-Kharj, Saudi Arabia

The irrigation systems employed are center pivots on circular patterns for wheat and alfalfa and forage crop plantations; drip system for orchard, vineyards and vegetable farms.

Sultanate of Oman. Three years ago our Company jointly with an Omani Company planted dates, bananas, melons and assorted vegetables in AlKhabourah, Oman

A banana plantation growing in the high-saline, desert soil of the Sultanate of Oman which is being fertilized with organic fertilizer.

With organic fertilizer it is now possible to grow bananas and dates with better yields in the deserts of the Sultanate of Oman.

B. Asian Experience

1. Malaysia. Our Company in Malaysia has done extensive production of various crops, namely: oil palm, rice, corn, vegetables, orchards, and other plantation crops such as tea, banana and papaya on varied types of soil including lateritic or stony areas and from acidic to alkaline soils.

A. Oil Palm

B. Banana

C. Corn

D. Rice

2. Vietnam. On highly acidic soils (ph 4) our Company has successfully planted rice doubling the yields from less than 4 tons per ha to as much as 8 tons per ha. We have also commercially grown cassava or tapioca and fruit trees with very good yields on alkaline or saline soils.

B. Longan Fruit Tree

A. Cassava

3. Indonesia. Jointly with the Indonesian Company we have made successful production of oil palm, rice, corn and other crops including shrimp ponds in this country.

Organically grown oil palm plantation (10-12 year old trees).

4. Thailand. Our experience on rice production in this country is quite outstanding having realized increased in yields on areas that are highly acidic (pH 4.5) while the optimum pH is 6.5 for this crop.

A rice plant in its reproductive (flowering) stage fertilized with organic fertilizer.

5. China. Using organic fertilizer we have successfully grown several crops e.g. rice, corn, sorghum, vegetables, potato, soybean, winter melon, aloe vera, ganoderma, grapes, etc. In Da Qing, Heilongjiang Province we have turned high saline soils (pH >10) and successfully planted trees, forage crops and ornamental shrubs.

A. Rice

B. Winter Melon

C. Ganoderma, the wonder fungus

D. Aloe Vera

High saline soil, pH > 10

Trees growing well on barren land.

Forage grass for animal feeds are intercropped with the trees.

Cutting grass for animal feeds.

Semen persicae thriving on high saline soil.

Semen persicae, an ornamental shrub blooming in spring.

A. Rice

B. Squash

C. Carrot

D. Cabbage

The crop performances in the aforementioned countries are shown in the following tables.

ountr
Mala sia

rop
ice Inbred
M

esult

ountr
ietnam

rop
ice Inbred arieties H brid arieties
assa a rchard trees rambutan longan etc.

esult
ields of 7. ields of
ields of

tons ha tons ha
tons ha

arieties
&

ields of 7
ields of

tons ha
tons ha

il alm apa a & anana

Watermelon

Increased of fruit bunch ields b %

Increased ields of % Increased ields of % Indonesia

Increased ields of % ields of ields of tons ha tons ha % %

Inbred

ice

rchard Trees e.g. durian rambutan Increased ields of mangosteen longan etc. ssorted eggies Increased ields of

H brid ellow corn il alm

Increased ields b

ssorted egetables Increased ields b

Country China

Crop Hybrid Rice (temperate var.) Hybrid yellow corn Sweet melon Grapes, apples, pears peaches Sugar cane Tea Assorted Veggies Commercial trees forage crops

Result Yields of 10-12 tons/ha Yields of 12-13 tons/ha Yields of 30-35 tons/ha Yields of 35-40 tons/ha Yields of 130-140 tons/ha Yields of 25-30 t tons/ha Yields of 35-40 tons/ha In Heilongjiang, trees and forage crops were successfully grown in high saline barren lands where it was impossible before.

Role of Microorganisms vis-a-vis Plant Nutrients Assimilation Microorganisms have the ability to efficiently access elements from both inorganic and organic sources and making them more assimilable for plant use. If the nutrient elements are in excess amounts they can immobilized some so phytotoxicity can be at manageable levels insofar as the plant is concerned. And this is the reason why even in problem soils plants can still access these nutrients for their growth and development.

From organic sources e.g. breakdown of proteins and other nitrogenous substances is the result of the metabolism of a multitude of microbial strains each of which has some function in the pathway of conversion. The nitrifiers can fix nitrogen from the air asymbiotically effected by the genus Rhizobia and symbiotically by the genus Rhizopus and this means substantial savings on the use of nitrogenous fertilizers. Microorganisms also has the ability to synthesize extracellular, proteolytic enzymes for the enhanced decomposition of nitrogenous substances converting them into highly assimilable compounds.

Species of bacteria such as those belonging to the genera Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Serratia and Micrococcus including fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Penicillium and Rhizopus could effectively perform the function mentioned above.

Mineralization of nutrient elements is highly influenced by soil pH and their availability as shown in the following schematic diagram.

pH 4.0 Microbial activities of Bacteria & Actinomycetes is only 20% N assimilation = 15% Ca, Mg & Mo assimilation = 15% S assimilation = 25% B = 20% assimilable pH 5.0 B assimilation goes down Below pH 5.5 N bacteria & actinomycetes efficiency starts to go down Below pH 6.0 P goes down

Above pH 7.0, B assimilation

diminishes
Above pH 7.0 P efficiency reduces pH 8.375 B & P efficiency reduces to 25% and goes up to 40% at pH 9.0 pH 8.5 Ca & Mg efficiency goes down and is 20% at pH 9.0

Even the intake of nitrogen from urea can be enhanced through microbial action. A number of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes synthesize urease, a catalyst responsible for hydrolyzing urea to enhance utilization. The element phosphorus as an inorganic nutrient required by plants, microorganisms again play an active role in its transformation to be better assimilated by plants. Certain bacteria belonging to the genera Bacillus, Actinomycetes and Pseudomonas as well as fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Mucor and Penicillium can effectively release potassium from known sources so they can be made available for plant use.

Sulfur can also be transformed biologically especially those beloning to the genus Thiobacillus e.g. T. thiooxidans can oxidize elemental sulfur and is capable of active growth at pH 3.0 or below. T. ferrooxidans has the ability to use the oxidation of either ferrous or sulfur salts for energy. It has also been discovered that other species of bacteria belonging to the genera Bacillus, Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter and Pseudomonas including Actinomycetes as well as fungi e.g. Aspergillus and Penicillium have the ability to oxidize sulfur compounds. Acidity caused by iron toxicity can be checked by microbial action. Species belonging to the genera Bacillus, Klebsella, Pseudomonas and Serratia can effectively reduce iron hence toxicity can become manageable.

Manganese being present in acid soils can be responsible for poor plant growth because excessive levels of this ion is phytotoxic and the injury is worst in poorly drained or flooded fields. Such effects have been noted in both orchard trees and agronomic crops. Selenium, a very essential element for plant growth and development, can be effectively transformed for better assimilation by plants by species belonging to the genera Candida,Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Micrococcus and Rhizobium. Microbiologically, the solubility and assimilability of zinc can happen by (a) organic acids produced by some bacteria can solubilized zinc silicates, (b) oxidation of ammonium salts by the nitrifiers will make zinc available, (c) the decomposition of plant residues leads to a release of the soluble cation, and (d) the oxidation of sulfide by Thiobacillus will release the element in a water-soluble form.

T. ferrooxidans is also capable of bringing about an enzymatic oxidation of cuprous to cupric ions so it becomes more assimilable. It has been observed that the biological production of sulfuric and nitric acids for sulfur and ammonium salts can cause the solubilization of calcium and aluminum, an effect which is readily availble in natural condition. Similarly, organic acids generated by heterotrophs will solubilize silicon, aluminum, magnesium and calcium. Bacteria and fungi also synthesize a variety of chelating agents, and these compounds are known to liberate silicon, calcium, magnesium, aluminum, sodium and other elements from minerals or insoluble salts.

ssimilation of utrients
The following table shows the species of bacteria that can fix elements and/or transform into more stable and easily assimilated nutrients by the plants.
lem en t
icro o rg a n ism s esp o n sib le fo r ix a tio n o r o n ersio n to ssim ila b le u trien ts Azotobacter vinelandii co n erts a te o f ssim ila tio n b y la n ts

Nitrosomonas europeae o xidi es

itro g en

Nitrobacter winogradskyi co n erts o r sy m b io tic fixa tio n hizobium japonicum; hizobium leguminosarum o r y m b io tic fix a tio n hizopus oligosporus

era g e o f . o f to ta l w eig h t b io m a ss

Element

icroorganisms Responsible for Fixation or Conversion to Assimilable Nutrients

Rate of Assimilation by Plants

The following microbes solubilize insoluble phosphorus into assimilable nutrients for plant use:
Bacillus subtilis; Bacillus licheniformis; Penicillium notatum; Aspergillus niger

Phosphorus

Average of 0.2 % of total weight of biomass

Note: Solubilization is enhanced by organic acids e.g. formic acid, acetic acid, citric acid, etc.

Element

Microorganisms Responsible for Fixation or Conversion to Assimilable Nutrients

Rate of Assimilation by Plants

The following microbes solubilize insoluble potassium into assimilable nutrients for plant use: Potassium Bacillus sp.;

Average of 0.2 % of total weight of biomass

Aspergillus sp.; Penicillium sp.

Element

Microorganisms Responsible for Fixation or Conversion to Assimilable Nutrients

Rate of Assimilation by Plants

Sulfur

The following microbes oxidize inorganic sulfur into assimilable compounds and also capable of reducing sulfur to sulfide: Thiobacillus thiooxidans; Thiobacillus ferrooxidans

Average of 0.01 % of total weight of biomass

Iron

These microbes reduce ferric to ferrous hence, minimizing phyto toxicity in iron toxic soils:

Average of 0.01 % of total weight of biomass

Thiobacillus ferrooxidans; Bacillus sp.

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i i i

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i il i l

El

i il

l i Zi B l
l l i i

, i ,

ll l , l

i l

i
ili

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,

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i 5

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, ili , ,

l i , i & ll i l il

Art robact r . acill . Corynebacteri m . Klebsiella sp. Aspergill s sp. & Penilli m notat m

l i

Category 1: Seven (7) Bacteria for Decomposition, Enzyme Production and Nutrients Transformation. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass = 1x106 up to 1x108.

Bacillus stearothermophilus

Cellulomonas fabia

Lactobacillus casei

Thiobacillus ferrooxidans

Thiobacillus thiooxidans

Methanobacterium ruminantium

Methanobacterium forminicum

Category 2: Three (3) Bacteria for Decomposition of Polysaccharides and Enzyme Production. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass = 1x106 up to 1x108.

Bacillus subtilis

Bacillus polymyxa

Bacillus licheniformis

Category 3:Three (3) Bacteria for Enhanced Decomposition, Compost Sweetening and Probiotics Production. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass = 1x105 up to 1x107.

Streptomyces thermophilus Thermoactinomyces vulgaris

Thermonospora curvata

Category 4: Five (5) Bacteria for Nitrogen Fixation and Nutrients Transformation. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass = 1x105 up to 1x106.

Azotobacter vinelandii

Nitrosomonas europeae

Nitrobacter winogradskyi

Rhizobium japonicum

Rhizobium leguminosarum

Category 5: Seven (7) Fungi for Decomposition, Probotics Production and Nutrients Transformation. Most Probable Number (MPN) Per Gram of Biomass = 1x104 up to 1x106.

Aspergillus niger

Aspergillus oryzae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Penicillium notatum Rhizopus oligosporus

Glomus mosseae

Humicola insolens

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT GARY LOW

Plantmate Australia & New Zealand

+610417 773 954