Structure & Function of Human Nervous System 1 Nervous system is divided into: 1.Central nervous system (CNS) 2.

.Peripheral nervous system (PNS) The central nervous system is composed of: Brain, which act as the command and integration centers of the nervous system (Figure 1, below), and where information or stimuli are analyzed and responses generated. CNS is also the site of thought, reasoning, and memory. The information that the CNS receives is divided into 12 cranial nerves and the peripheral or spinal nerves (Figure 2, below).

Structure & Function of Nervous System 1

1. Central nervous system (CNS) 2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

Brain, Spinal Cord, & Nerves

Structure & Function of Nervous System

Spinal cord, The cranial nerves convey impulses to and from the brain. The peripheral nerves convey impulses to and from the spinal cord. Both sets of nerves serve as communication lines linking all parts of the body to the central nervous system, and carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to the appropriate glands or muscles.

Structure & Function of Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System(PNS) has an enormous number of receptors, are used to gather information about the outside world. Peripheral nerves are divided into sensory (afferent/ ascending) pathways that carry impulses toward the CNS; and motor (efferent/descending) pathways that carry impulses away from the CNS to skeletal muscles, glands, and effector organs. Effector organs such as the heart or pancreas are innervated by specific components of the nervous system.

Structure & Function of Nervous System

Reflex Arc Afferent and Efferent Nerve Fibers

Structure & Function of Nervous System Functionally-the peripheral nervous system is divided into: 1. Somatic nervous system (SNS) 2. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) The somatic nervous system consists of pathways that regulate voluntary control (such as that needed to lift objects) of skeletal muscles. Autonomic nervous system regulates automatic or involuntary control of organ systems (such as cardiac muscle and glands).

Structure & Function of Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system can be further subdivided into: 1. Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) 2. Parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) NERVOUS TISSUE Nervous Tissue two principal types of cells make up nervous tissue: I. Neurons, and II. Supporting cells.

Structure & Function of Nervous System I. Neurons nerve cells are called neurons and specialized to transmit nerve impulses (messages) from one part of the body to another. They work alone or in units to detect environmental changes and to initiate body responses to maintain an active, steady state. Neurons differ structurally, yet have common features (Figure 3, below).

Structure & Function of Nervous System All neurons consist of: Cell body- contains a nucleus that regulates cell functions and one or more processes or fibers extending from the cell body Dendrites- neuron processes that conduct electrical currents toward the cell body Axons- single fibers that carry nerve impulses away from the cell body. Axons occasionally give off collateral branches along their length, but all end in multiple branches known as axonal terminals. Neurons-have only one axon, but they may have hundreds of branching dendrites, depending on their type.

Structure & Function of Nervous System When an impulse reaches the axonal terminals, it stimulates the release of chemicals into the extracellular space (the synapse). They either help an impulse to cross the synapse or stop it from crossing. Neurons are very close together but never actually touch each other. Synaptic cleft- the tiny space that separates one neuron from another neuron.

Structure and Function of the Nervous System What occurs in the synaptic cleft. The synapse is the functional junction that joins one neuron to another. It is usually a chemical type of synapse. Some neurons are physically joined by gap junctions, where electrical currents are able to flow directly from one neuron to the next neuron.

Structure & Function of Nervous System

The synapse is the functional junction that joins one neuron to another. It is usually a chemical type of synapse. Some neurons are physically joined by gap junctions, where electrical currents are able to flow directly from one neuron to the next neuron. II. Supporting Cells in the central nervous system are neuroglia, which generally support, insulate, and protect the neurons. Each type of neuroglia has special functions.

Structure & Function of Nervous System

Myelin is the whitish, fatty material that covers most long nerve fibers. It protects and insulates the nerve fibers and increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses. Axons outside of the CNS are myelinated by Schwann cells, which form the myelin sheath.

Structure & Function of Nervous The neurilemma is the part of the Schwann cell cytoplasm that ends up beneath the outermost part of the plasma membrane external to the myelin sheath. The myelin sheath has indentations called nodes of Ranvier, which are formed by the individual Schwann cells. i.e. Myelin sheath & neurilemma Neurilemma plays an important role in fiber regeneration if it remains intact when a peripheral nerve fiber is damaged.

System

Structure & Function of Nervous System

The velocity of nerve impulses increases where myelin is present. The increased speed occurs because the myelin acts as an insulator that allows ions to flow between segments rather than along the entire length of the membrane. Movement of the electrical impulse along the nodes of Ranvier is call Saltatory movement or transmission. Disorders of the myelin sheath such as multiple sclerosis and Guillain-Bare` syndrome, provide examples of the important role myelin plays in nerve function.

Structure &Function of Nervous System III. Neuroglia are structurally very similar to neurons, but are not able to conduct nerve impulses and they never lose their ability to divide. Because neuroglia can divide, most brain tumors are formed by neuroglia and are known as gliomas. The Schwann cells and the satellite cells are the primary supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system. Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers found in the PNS, and the satellite cells protect and cushion cells. Clusters of neuron cell bodies found in the CNS are called nuclei.

Structure & Function of Nervous System The Nuclei are well protected within the bony skull or vertebral column. This protection is essential since these neurons do not undergo cell division after birth. Cell body carries out most of the metabolic functions of these neurons. If the cell body is damaged and dies, it is not replaced. Ganglia are small collections of cell bodies found outside the CNS in the PNS. Tracts are nerve bundles in the CNS. In the PNS tracts are called nerves. White matter is composed of dense collections of myelinated tracts.

Structure and Function of the Nervous System Gray matter consists mostly of unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies. Functionally, neurons are classified according to the direction the nerve impulse is traveling in relation to the CNS. Sensory or afferent neurons carry impulses from sensory receptors in the internal organs or the skin to the CNS. Pain receptors are the least specialized. Cutaneous receptors are the most numerous and are actually bare dendrite endings.

Structure & Function of Nervous System Motor or efferent neurons carry impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and glands. The motor neurons cell bodies are always located in the CNS. Association neurons or interneurons connect motor and sensory neurons in the neural pathways. Like motor neurons, their cell bodies are always located in the CNS. Nerve Impulses Electrical and chemical impulses are generated and conducted by neurons, which selectively change the electrical potential of the plasma membrane and influence other nearby neurons by the release of neurotransmitters.

Structure & Function of Nervous System Electrical and chemical impulses generated between neurons

Structure & Function of Nervous System A nerve impulse is a self-propagated electrical charge transmitted along the membrane of a nerve fiber. It is much like the electrical impulses that are carried along a telephone wire (see previous figure). More than 30 neurotransmitters have been identified. Common selected neurotransmitters are described in Table 1.

Structure & Function of Nervous System

Table 1:Selected Common Neurotransmitters

Transmitter Location Action Acetylcholine CNS, autonomic Excitation speeds Nervous system impulse transmission (ANS), neuromuscular junctions Serotonin CNS Inhibition controls body heat, hunger, behavior, and sleep

Structure and Function of the Nervous System

Dopamine CNS, ANS Inhibition controls behavior and fine movement Norepinephrine CNS, ANS Excitation chief transmitter of sympathetic nervous system

Structure & Function of Nervous System For electrical impulses to flow through the nervous system, a stimulus must occur. The stimulus raises a potential response, called the action potential (Figure ). If the stimulus is too weak, the membrane remains at rest (unexcited). This is often referred to as the allor none response it either is conducted over the entire axon or it does not happen at all. The events that involve nerve impulses are: Polarization, which is the normal state of the resting neuron Depolarization and generation of the action potential Repolarization.

Structure & Function of Nervous System Three steps describe the movement of a nerve impulse along unmyelinated fibers. Fibers that have a myelin sheath conduct impulses much faster. The nerve impulse literally leaps from node to node along the length of the fiber. Reflex Arc Reflexes are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli. Once initiated, a reflex always goes in the same direction and occurs over neural pathways called reflex arcs (Figure ). Reflexes can be classified as either autonomic or somatic reflexes.

Structure & Function of Nervous System Autonomic reflexes regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and glands. Autonomic reflexes regulate body functions such as digestion, elimination, blood pressure, and sweating. The sympathetic nervous system responds, that is, activates the fight-or-flight response, to get the body moving in emergency or exciting situations. The parasympathetic nervous system calms and restores the body. The parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to normal balance.

Structure & Function of Nervous System

Structure & Function of Nervous System Figure of the Reflex Arc illustrates effects on organs of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system. Somatic reflexes are the reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles. Clinical Observation: Testing of reflexes is a valuable assessment tool in evaluating the condition of the nervous system. Nervous system disorders are indicated whenever reflexes are exaggerated, distorted, or absent. Often reflex changes occur before the pathologic condition has become obvious in other ways.