Power System Quality and Reliability Lecture No.

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Dr. Muhammad Kamran EED., UET, Lahore

Text Book (s)

1-Power Quality in Electrical Systems
Alexander Kusko, Mark T. Thompson (2006)
2- Power Quality C Sankaran(2002) 3-Electrical Power System Quality Roger C Dugan

Evaluation criteria
Quiz: 15% Mid term: 30 % End term: 40 % Presentations/Assignments: 15% NOTE: Presentation should be on any topic related to power system quality It may include the concepts of protection against faults or reasons of power quality degradation

Lecture Contents
Harmonics
Causes Remedies Types

Ferroresonance Phenomena and causes

Experimental set up

Points to be Discussed
What is Power Quality? What are some power quality concerns? What are Harmonics and what causes them? What effects do Poor PQ and Harmonics have on a building power system and components? How can Power Quality and Harmonics Issues be mitigated?

What is Power Quality?

Can be defined as:
Any power problem manifested in
voltage, current, or frequency deviations

that results in failure or mis-operation of customer equipment

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What are general classes of power quality problems per IEC?

Signal systems (power line carrier) Voltage fluctuations (flicker) Voltage dips and interruptions Voltage Imbalance (unbalance) Power frequency variations Induced low-frequency voltages DC in ac networks Harmonics, inter-harmonics Magnetic and Electric Fields
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Categories and Characteristics of Power System Electromagnetic Phenomena (IEC)

Voltage Fluctuations
Transients very quick < 1 cycle
Normal cause is lightning strike Lightning arrestors at substations are employed and at primary switches located at each building electric service equipment End users need to purchase/install TVSS equipment to further clamp the voltage spike
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Voltage Fluctuations

Sags / Swells
Voltage imbalance lasting from 3-20 cycles Typical cause switching on the incoming 115kV transmission line Lights flickering are indicative of this fault
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Voltage Fluctuations Long term voltage fluctuations

As load increases, voltage drops (and vice versa) Long-duration voltage variations can be compensated through the use of automatic load tap changers System voltage tolerance limits are set in ANSI (American National Standard Institute) C84.1. or refer to IEEE 141-1993

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What Are Harmonics?

A component frequency of a harmonic motion of an electromagnetic wave that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency US fundamental frequency is 60 Hertz
3rd Harmonic is 3 x 60Hz or 180Hz 5th Harmonic is 5 x 60Hz or 300Hz, etc.
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What Causes Harmonics?

Non-Linear Loads
Current is not proportional to the applied voltage

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Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current waveforms

Linear loads and current waveforms.
Pure resistance, inductance, and capacitance are all linear. What that means: If a sine wave voltage of a certain magnitude is placed across a circuit containing pure resistance, the current in the circuit follows Ohm's Law: I = E R. So, for a specific value of ohms, the relationship of volts and amperes is a straight line. The current will always be a sine wave of the same frequency. Linear Loads include Incandescent lighting, heating loads, and motors
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Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current waveforms

Nonlinear loads and current waveforms.
Solid state electronics is based on the use of semiconductors. These materials are totally different in that their response to voltage is not a straight line. What this means: With a nonlinear load, you cannot easily predict the relationship between voltage and current unless you have an exact curve for each device. With equipment containing many solid-state devices, such an approach is impossible. Nonlinear loads are switched on for only part of the cycle, as in a thyristor-controlled circuit, or pulsed, as in a controlled-rectifier circuit.

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Switched mode power supplies

SMPS equipment is also referred to as nonlinear loads This type of non-linear loads or SMPS equipment generates the very harmonics they re sensitive to and that originate right within your building or facility SMPS equipment typically forms a large portion of the electrical non-linear load in most electrical distribution systems

 There are basically two types of non-linear loads:

single-phase and three-phase.
Single-phase non-linear loads are prevalent in modern office buildings while three-phase non-linear loads are widespread in factories and industrial plants

 All computer systems use SMPS that convert utility AC voltage to regulated low voltage DC for internal electronics These non-linear power supplies draw current in high amplitude short pulses These current pulses create significant distortion in the electrical current and voltage wave shape

 This is referred to as a harmonic distortion and is measured in Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) The distortion travels back into the power source and can effect other equipment connected to the same source

Effect of harmonics on waveform

180 Out of Phase

In Phase

When a waveform is identical from one waveform to the next, it can be represented as a sum of pure sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency of the distorted wave. The sum of the sinusoids created by harmonics can be analyzed using the 20 Fourier series concept

What do harmonics do?

Harmonics are carried through the system from the source and can nearly double the amount of current on the neutral conductor in three phase four wire distribution systems Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also distort the voltage as they pass through the system impedance Therefore, a distorted voltage can be presented to other end users on the system Overall electrical system and power quality is affected by the introduction of harmonics
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Sources of Harmonics
Solid State Electronic Devices which contain a poor power supply
Computers (PCs/CPUs) Laser Printers Copy Machines Video display terminals File Servers Battery Chargers

*Solid State UPS Units Solid State Devices (Fluorescent lighting ballasts) **Rectifiers (AC-DC Converters VFDs-variable frequency drive) Welding Units Arc Furnaces 22

What are the order of typical harmonics generated by non-linear loads?

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Effects of Harmonics (cont)

Operation Problems of Relays and Circuit Breakers Thermal/Magnetic Trip Circuit Breakers Fuses & bimetal strips respond to True RMS Harmonic currents increase eddy current losses in the core steel of the metallic strip This causes an OVER protection situation Increased losses generate additional heat, this effect the thermal trip of the unit Electronic Trip Circuit Breakers Magnitude and phase angle(s) of harmonic current(s) in relationship to the fundamental current can cause: Overprotection when: Peak current sensing > True RMS Under protection when: Peak current sensing < True RMS Changing power system loads will vary the magnitude and phase angle, resulting in inaccurate and unpredictable sensing units and overload protection
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Effects of Harmonics (cont)

Communication Problems
If sharing common parallel path, potential for harmonics to have inductive coupling effect on unshielded cabling

Current Measurement Problems (distorted waveform) Unreliable Operation of Electronic Equipment

Mis-operation of electronic equipment that measures frequency

Control of Speed and Voltage Problems on Emergency Generators (supplying power) Capacitor Bank Application Problems (heating) Computer (PC/CPU) data errors / data loss
Affects power supplies and sensitive electronics
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How can Harmonics be Reduced?

Isolate harmonic loads on separate circuits (with or without harmonic filters) Harmonic mitigating transformers Phase shifting (zig-zag) transformers
Used to cancel out specific harmonics by making one voltage circuit 180 degrees out-of-phase This type of transformer has patented built-in electromagnetic technology designed to remove high neutral current and the most harmful harmonics from the 3rd through 21st

Filter capacitor banks

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How can Harmonics be Reduced?

For UPS specifically:
Line Reactors (A 3-phase Line Reactor is a set of three (3) coils (also known as ... Line Reactors are current-limiting devices and oppose rapid changes in current ) K-Rated / Drive Isolation Transformers-An isolation transformer allows an AC signal or power to be taken from one device and fed into another without electrically connecting the two circuits Isolation transformers block transmission of DC signals from one circuit to the other, but allow AC signals to pass They also block interference caused by ground loops Isolation transformers with electrostatic shields are used for power supplies for sensitive equipment such as computers or laboratory instruments

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Isolation transformer
Isolation Transformers have primary and secondary windings that are physically separated from each other An isolation transformer allows an AC signal or power to be taken from one device and fed into another without electrically connecting the two circuits

Number of Tasks Performed by Isolation Transformer

They are constructed with a primary and secondary winding closely wrapped around the same ferrous core Commercial transformers incorporate a single Faraday shield between the primary and secondary windings to divert noise, which would normally be electrically coupled between the primary and secondary windings to ground

Faraday Shield
Faraday shield, is an enclosure formed by conducting material or by a mesh of such material

Ground Loops
A ground loop occurs when there is more than one ground connection path between two pieces of equipment The duplicate ground paths form the equivalent of a loop antenna which very efficiently picks up interference currents Lead resistance transforms these currents into voltage fluctuations

Ground Loops
As a consequence of ground-loop induced voltages, the ground reference in the system is no longer a stable potential, so signals ride on the noise The noise becomes part of the program signal A ground loop in the power or video signal occurs when some components in the same system are receiving its power from a different ground than other components, or the ground potential between two pieces of equipment is not identical

Ground Loops
Usually a potential difference in the grounds causes a current to flow in the interconnects This in turn modulates the input of the circuitry and is treated like any other signal fed through the normal inputs Here is an example situation where two grounded equipments are interconnected though signal wire ground and the mains grounding wire In this situation there is 1A current flowing in the wire which causes 0.1V voltage difference between those two equipment grounding points

Too many grounds in a system may produce noise

 Harmonic Mitigating / Phase Shifting Transformers

A phase-shifting transformer is a device for controlling the power flow through specific lines in a complex power transmission network The basic function of a phase-shifting transformer is to change the effective phase displacement between the input voltage and the output voltage of a transmission line, thus controlling the amount of active power that can flow in the line)

12, 18 or 24 pulse Converters Passive parallel / series tuned Filters Active Filters

Active filters
An active filter is a type of analog electronic filter, distinguished by the use of one or more active components i.e. voltage amplifiers

Passive filters
A passive filter is a kind of electronic filter that is made only from passive elements in contrast to an active filter, it does not require an external power source (beyond the signal) Since most filters are linear, in most cases, passive filters are composed of just the four basic linear elements resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers More complex passive filters may involve nonlinear elements, or more complex linear elements, such as transmission lines

Converters
A voltage converter changes the voltage of an electrical power source and is usually combined with other components to create a power supply The term "voltage converter" is sometimes used as a generic term for a power supply A voltage converter or a power supply may be called a "transformer" even if it does not contain an actual transformer as the term is used in electronics

How can Harmonics be Reduced?

PROPER GROUNDING Neutral to ground conductor connection at one location; at main panel or transformer secondary When neutral is connected to ground at multiple locations, interference can occur with sensitive electronic devices. Run power and control conductors in separate raceways Sensitive loads should not share neutral and ground conductors. Avoid using channel as the ground return path, run dedicated ground wire with circuit conductors
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Computer Equipment Grounding

TOP Radial or daisy chain grounding Although Code compliant per NEC, small differences in potential can cause unintended ground loops BOTTOM Best method for grounding is via dedicated equipment grounding conductors back to the source
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Effects of Harmonics
Distorted Voltage Overheated Transformers and Motors
Increases Hysteresis (magnetization) losses in steel and iron cores of transformers, motor and magnetic trip units of circuit breakers (Equipment inefficiencies and overheating)

Heating of Neutral Conductors

Skin Effect Increased amount of current flowing on the outside of conductors (overheating)

Low Voltage at End Loads

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Next Lecture
Discussion will be continued