Waves, Fields & Nuclear Energy

Contents
    

Oscillations & Waves Capacitance Gravitational & Electric Fields Magnetic Effects of Currents Nuclear Applications

Circular Motion


Consider an object going round in a circle of radius r: - speed is constant - velocity changes s=rU - angular velocity = 2Tf = r/v 2T - centripetal acceleration a = v2/r = 2r - centripetal force f = ma = mv2/r = m

2r

Oscillations
Natural frequency: an object will swing freely at this frequency frequency:  Free oscillation: an object oscillates independently oscillation:  Forced oscillation: a force causes an object to oscillate oscillation:  Resonant frequency: where maximum amplitude is attained frequency: (car suspensions, bridges swaying, bells ringing)
 

Damping: Damping: amplitude of oscillations exponentially decreases - light damping reduces oscillations slowly - heavy damping reduces oscillations quickly - critical damping stops the oscillation within one cycle

SHM
max. a and max. v: origin  V = 0 at A and +A  max. PE at A and +A  max. KE at origin
     

a = - (2Tf )2x (2T a=v = 2Tf (A2 x2) 2T s = s A cos 2Tft 2T T = 2T(l/g) 2T(l/g) Etot = PE + KE

2x

SHM

Mass on a spring: spring:  Fup = k(l + x) mg  a = -kx/m = - (2Tf )2x (2T  T = 2T(m/k) 2T(m/k)


Progressive Waves


Wave Equation: Equation: v=f

v = velocity (m/s) f = frequency (Hz) or (1/s) = wavelength (m)



Polarisation: Polarisation:

Superposition of Waves


Superposition can only be applied to waves of the same kind The diagram shows a green wave added to a red wave. The result is the black wave, whose wavelength and amplitude reflects the sum of the two waves

Wave Behaviour
Interference: Interference: When two waves collide, they superimpose  Superposition affects the waveform and interference results
 

Path difference: difference in distance between two sources. It is measured in half wavelengths

Waves in phase interfere constructively (increased amplitude)  Waves out of phase interfere destructively (cancellation)


Constructive: even number of s  Destructive: odd number of s



Wave Behaviour


Diffraction Grating: Grating: - Light is split by travelling through very thin slits called a diffraction grating - Light is split because it is composed of different wavelengths - Each of these wavelengths diffracts at a different angle d sinU = m sinU

d = slit width U = angle m = spectrum order number (1st: m= 1, 2nd: m = 2 etc.) = wavelength NB: m is sometimes denoted as n instead

Wave Behaviour
The more slits, the more defined the diffractions  The more slits, the greater the intensity  The more slits, the greater the angle (easier to measure!)
 

There is a limited number of orders, as sinU has a maximum sinU value of 1 - therefore at maximum, d = m

Capacitors


Capacitors: store charge for a short time - consists of two metal plates separated by a layer of insulating material dielectric

Electrons are pumped onto the ve plate  Electrons are repelled off the +ve plate  A potential difference is formed thus a charge
 

Capacitance: charge required to produce 1V of potential difference in a conductor capacitance (F) = charge (C) /voltage (V) C = Q / V

Capacitors


Energy in a Capacitor: When a capacitor is charged up, a Capacitor: certain amount of charge moves through a certain voltage. Work is done on the charge to build up the electric field in the capacitor energy = charge x voltage capacitance = charge / voltage

Thus: E = CV2


Discharge of a Capacitor: Charge decreases by the same Capacitor: fraction for each time interval, so that if it takes time, t, for the charge to decay to 50 % of its original level, the charge after 2t seconds is 25 % of the original

Capacitors
Q = Q0e t/RC  V = V0e t/RC  I = I0e t/RC RC = time constant


t = 0.693 RC t = half life



Gravity Fields


Newton s Square Law of Gravitation: - Every particle of matter in the Universe attracts every other particle with a gravitational force that is proportional to the products of the masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them F = -GMm/r2 G = 6.67x10-11Nm2kg-2

Thus:


a = F/m

where a = gravity: g = F/m g = -GM/r2 r = radius from centre of orbit!

Thus:

Gravity Fields


Heading towards the centre of the Earth

At centre: g = 0 as matter is pulled in all directions equally

Gravity Fields


Gravitational Potential: Potential: - Work done on a unit mass in moving it to that point from a point remote from all other masses Always negative, because this involves a closed system - the zero point of gravitational potential is at infinity Vg = -GM/r Vg = gravitational potential

 

Vg is the area under the curve on the previous slide Potential Energy in space: Ep = -GMm/r

Electric Fields


Electric field: region of force around a point charge F = kQ1Q2/r2 k= I0 = 8.85v10-12 C2N-1m-2 (F/m) 8.85v

Electric Field Strength: force per unit charge E = F/Q

This is radial for point charges:

Electric Fields


Electric Field Strength: is inversely proportional to the square of the radius

- uniform field: E = V/d



Electric Potential: energy per unit charge

Magnetic Fields
A current (I) has a magnetic field (B) around it  A wire has a circular magnetic field around it


If the current changes direction, so does the field

Magnetic Fields
Magnets attract magnetic materials using a magnetic field  The magnetic field surrounds the magnet, and gets weaker as the distance from the magnet increases  Magnets should be called permanent magnets the magnetism is always there


Electricity makes a magnet much stronger  This can be turned on and off


Magnetic Fields
Magnets pick up paper clips etc. strong

weak Electromagnets pick up cars etc.

Magnetic Fields


The magnetic field around a coil electromagnet can be increased by: - Increasing the current flowing through the wire - Adding loops on the coil (loops are long lengths of wire) - Placing an iron or steel core inside the coil

Basic electromagnet

Magnetic Fields
The Motor Effect: Effect: - When two magnets are placed close to each other, they the fields affect each other produce a force  If a wire carrying a current is placed inside this magnetic field, a force is produced. This is called the motor effect  The direction of the force will depend on the direction of the magnetic field and the direction of the current in the field


Magnetic Fields


Fleming s Left Hand Rule: Rule: - When creating a force, use Fleming s LH Rule to determine in which way the motor will spin -

Magnetic Fields


We can increase the force produced by: - increasing the current - increasing the number of coils - increasing the magnetic field strength (stronger magnet)

Magnetic Fields
When a magnet is moved into a coil, an electrical current is induced When the magnet stops, the induced current stops When the magnet reverses, the electrical current reverses

Magnetic Fields
Increase the voltage? 1. Stronger magnet 2. Speed of magnet 3. Number of coils 3 ways

Magnetic Fields
 

To work out the force on a wire: use Fleming s LH Rule Force is proportional to: - current - magnetic field strength - length of wire inside magnetic field F = BIl B = magnetic field strength or flux density (Tesla) F = BIl sinU sinU

When a wire is at an angle to the magnetic field

Magnetic Fields
 

To work out the force on a charge: use Fleming s LH Rule Force is proportional to: - current (flow of charge) - magnetic field strength - velocity of charged particle F = BqV B = magnetic field strength or flux density (Tesla) F = BqV sinU sinU

When a charge is at an angle to the magnetic field F = mv2/r BqV = mv2/r V = Bqr/m

Magnetic Fields


Magnetic Flux: Product between the magnetic flux density and Flux: the area when the field is at right angles to the area = BA Flux Linkage: Linkage: = NBA It can be changed by: - changing the strength of the magnetic field - move the coil so it enters the field at an angle Lenz s Law: direction of an induced current opposes the flux change that caused it multiplied by number of turns on a wire

   

Mass & Energy

1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.661 v 10-27 kg 10 Atomic mass: mass of an atom  Nuclear mass: mass of atom s nucleus


E = mc2 (J) = (kgm2/s2) 1eV = 1.6x10-19J  1u = 931.3MeV

 

c = 3x108m/s

Binding Energy per Nucleon: Energy required to remove a nucleon. Higher numbers more stable nuclei

Mass & Energy



Fission: splitting up of a large nucleus which is Fission: rarely spontaneous The strong nuclear force acts between neighbouring nucleons The forces are now weak in this shape/formation Nucleus splits (rarely spontaneously) Induce fission: add thermal neutron whose kinetic energy: 1) isn t too low (will bounce off nucleus) 2) isn t too high (will go through nucleus) 3) is correct to be captured by the attractive force in between nucleons - this can result in a chain reaction

  

Mass & Energy



Fusion: Fusion: when light nuclei bind together which increases the binding energy per nucleon energy is released Each nucleus has to have sufficient energy to: - overcome electrostatic repulsion from the protons - overcome the repulsive strong force which is found outside the region of the strong force High temperatures are required (gas plasma)

 

If it could be made to work, has advantages over fission: - greater power per kilogram of fuel used - raw materials are cheap and readily available - reaction is not radioactive

Nuclear Power
Although the fission products are not easily predictable, three more neutrons are produced  An uncontrolled chain reaction causes a violent explosion  Minimum mass before chain reaction occurs: critical mass
  

     

Nuclear power station: Reactor is housed in a concrete to prevent radiation from leaking Expensive to build Costly to run Very clean, no pollution Need very little fuel Produce dangerous waste Nuclear power France vs. England = 80% vs. 20%

Nuclear Power


Safety: Safety: - Strict regulations - Serious accidents involving radiation leaks have occurred - Disposal of radioactive waste must be carried out carefully Transmutation: Transmutation: - Definition: changing the nuclei of elements by exposing them to particles - Particles have to travel slow enough to be captured by the nucleus - used in medicine

Summary
           

Circular Motion Oscillations SHM Progressive Waves Superposition of Waves Wave Behaviour Capacitors Gravity Fields Electric Fields Magnetic Fields Mass & Energy Nuclear Power