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Formation of CSF
Functional Units
Functional Units
Brain, which accounts for about 2% of the body's weight, contains many billions (perhaps even a trillion) of neurons and glial cells. neurons, or nerve cells, are specialized cells that receive and send signals to other cells through their extensions (nerve fibers, or axons). Nerve cells serving a common function, often with a common target, are frequently grouped together into nuclei. Nerve cells with common form, function, and connections that are grouped together outside the CNS are called ganglia. Other cellular elements that support the activity of the neurons are the glial cells
Functional Units
Functional Units
Neurons
Neurons
Motor neurons are usually larger than sensory neurons. Nerve cells with long processes (eg, dorsal root ganglion cells) are larger than those with short processes. Some neurons project from the cerebral cortex to the lower spinal cord, a distance of less than 2 ft in infants or 4 ft or more in adults. very short processes, reaching, for example, only from cell to cell in the cerebral cortex. These small neurons, with short axons that terminate locally, are called interneurons.
Neurons
cell body contains the nucleus and is essential for the continued life of the neuron. Dendrites are processes (extensions) that transmit impulses toward the cell body. The one axon of a neuron transmits impulses away from the cell body. It is the cell membrane of the dendrites, cell body, and axon that carries the electrical nerve impulse.
Neurons
In the peripheral nervous system, axons and dendrites are wrapped in specialized cells called Schwann cells. They have the layers called the myelin sheath; myelin is a phospholipid that electrically insulates neurons from one another. Without the myelin sheath, neurons would short-circuit, just as electrical wires would if they were not insulated.
Neurons
The spaces between adjacent Schwann cells, or segments of the myelin sheath, are called nodes of Ranvier. These nodes are the parts of the neuron cell membrane that depolarize when an electrical impulse is transmitted. nuclei and cytoplasm of the Schwann cells are wrapped around the outside of the myelin sheath and are called the neurolemma. In the central nervous system, the myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes, one of the neuroglia (glial cells), the specialized cells found only in the brain and spinal cord.
Types of Neuroglia
Axonal Transport
axons transport materials from the cell body to the synaptic terminals (anterograde Transport). And from the synaptic terminals to the cell body called (retrograde transport). Because ribosomes are not present in the axon, new protein must be synthesized and moved to the axon. This occurs via several types of axonal transport, which differ in terms of the rate and the material transported. Anterograde transport may be fast (up to 400 mm/d) or slow (about 1 mm/d). Retrograde transport is similar to rapid anterograde transport. Fast transport involves microtubules extending through the cytoplasm of the neuron.
Axonal Transport
axon can be injured by being cut or severed, crushed, or compressed. After injury to the axon, the neuronal cell body responds by entering a phase called the axon reaction, or chromatolysis.
In general, axons within peripheral nerves can regenerate quickly after they are severed, whereas those within the CNS do not tend to regenerate.
Synapse
The small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrites or cell body of the next neuron is called the synapse. Within the synaptic knob (terminal end) of the presynaptic axon is a chemical neurotransmitter that is released into the synapse by the arrival of an electrical nerve impulse. A chemical inactivator cell body or dendrite of the postsynaptic neuron quickly inactivates the neurotransmitter. Many synapses are termed excitatory, because the neurotransmitter causes the postsynaptic neuron to depolarize (become more negative outside as Na ions enter the cell) and transmit an electrical impulse to another neuron, muscle cell, or gland. Some synapses, however, are inhibitory, meaning that the neurotransmitter causes the postsynaptic neuron to hyperpolarize (become even more positive outside as K ions leave the cell or Cl ions enter the cell) and therefore not transmit an electrical impulse.
SYNAPSE
TYPES OF NEURONS
Neurons may be classified into three groups: sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) carry impulses from receptors to the central nervous system. Receptors detect external or internal changes and send the information to the CNS in the form of impulses by way of the afferent neurons. The central nervous system interprets these impulses as a sensation. Sensory neurons from receptors in skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic; those from receptors in internal organs are called visceral sensory neurons. Motor neurons (or efferent neurons) carry impulses from the central nervous system to effectors. two types of effectors are muscles and glands. Motor neurons linked to skeletal muscle are called somatic; those to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands are called visceral.
Types of Neurons
Structural classification scheme is based on the number of processes 1. Multipolar neurons have many dendrites and a single axon.The dendrites vary in number and in their degree of branching. Most of the neurons within the CNS and motor neurons are multipolar.
Types of Neurons
2. Bipolar neurons have two processes: a dendrite and an axon The dendrite often is specialized to receive the stimulus, and the axon conducts action potentials to the CNS. Bipolar neurons are located in some sensory organs, such as in the retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity.
Types of Neurons
3. Unipolar neurons have a single process extending from the cell body .
This process divides into two branches a short distance from the cell body. One branch extends to the CNS, and the other branch extends to the periphery and has dendrite like sensory receptors. The two branches function as a single axon.
Types of neurons
Astrocytes (astro-s tz, aster is Greek, meaning star) are neuroglia that are star-shaped because of cytoplasmic processes that extend from the cell body Astrocytes have an extensive cytoskeleton of microfilaments that enables them to form a supporting framework for blood vessels and neurons. Astrocytes play a role in regulating the extracellular composition of brain fluid. The endothelial cells with their tight junctions form the blood=brain barrier, which determines what substances can pass from the blood into the nervous tissue of the brain and spinal cord.
The blood brain barrier protects neurons from toxic substances in the blood, allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products between neurons and the blood, and prevents fluctuations in the composition of the blood from affecting the functions of the brain . Astrocytes also help to control the composition of interstitial fluid by regulating the concentration of ions and gases and by absorbing and recycling neurotransmitters.
Ependymal cells line the ventricles (cavities) of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord Specialize ependymal cells and blood vessels form the choroid plexuses which are located within certain regions of the ventricles. The choroid plexuses secrete the cerebrospinal fluid that circulates through the ventricles of the brain.
Microglia are specialized macrophages in the CNS that become mobile and phagocytic in response to inflammation, and they phagocytize necrotic tissue, microorganisms, and foreign substances that invade the CNS.
ELECTRICAL IMPULSE
NERVE IMPULSE Polarization the neuron is not carrying an electrical impulse) Neuron membrane has a (+ ) charge outside and a ( - ) charge inside. Na ions are more abundant outside the cell. K ions and negative ions are more abundant inside the cell. Sodium and potassium pumps maintain these ion concentrations Neuron membrane becomes very permeable to Na ions, which rush into the cell. The neuron membrane then has a (+ ) charge outside and a ( - )charge inside.
Propagation of the impulse Depolarization of part of the membrane makes adjacent from point of stimulus membrane very permeable to Na ions, and subsequent depolarization, which similarly affects the next part of the membrane, and so on. The depolarization continues along the membrane of the neuron to the end of the axon. Repolarization immediately Neuron membrane becomes very permeable to K ions, which rush Follows depolarization) out of the cell. This restores the + charge outside and - charge inside the membrane. The Na ions are returned outside and the K ions are returned inside by the sodium and potassium pumps. The neuron is now able to respond to another stimulus and generate another impulse.
SENSORY NEURONS
SPINAL CORD
SPINAL NERVE
31 pairs of spinal nerves, those that emerge from the spinal cord. The nerves are named according to their respective vertebrae: 8 cervical pairs, 12 thoracic pairs, 5 lumbar pairs, 5 sacral pairs, and 1 very small coccygeal pair. Notice that the lumbar and sacral nerves hang below the end of the spinal cord (in order to reach their proper openings to exit from the vertebral canal); this is called the cauda equina, literally, the horse s tail. The dorsal root is made of sensory neurons that carry impulses into the spinal cord. The dorsal root ganglion is an enlarged part of the dorsal root that contains the cell bodies of the sensory neurons.
SPINAL NERVE
ganglion means a group of cell bodies outside the CNS. These cell bodies are within the vertebral canal and are thereby protected from injury. ventral root is the motor root; it is made of the axons of motor neurons carrying impulses from the spinal cord to muscles or glands. Spinal cord reflexes are those that do not depend directly on the brain, although the brain may inhibit or enhance them.
REFLEX ARC
1. A reflex is an involuntary response to a stimulus. 2. Reflex arc the pathway of nerve impulses during a reflex: (1) receptors, (2) sensory neurons, (3) CNS with one or more synapses, (4) motor neurons, (5) effector that responds. 3. Stretch reflex a muscle that is stretched will contract;these reflexes help keep us upright against gravity. The patellar reflex is also used clinically t assess neurologic functioning, as are many other reflexes. 4. Flexor reflex a painful stimulus will cause withdrawal of the body part; these reflexes are protective.
PATELLAR REFLEX
REFLEX ARC
Reflex
a rapid, involuntary reaction and predictable response to a stimulus. a) Autonomic reflexes- regulate activity of smooth muscles, heart and glands b) Somatic reflexes- stimulate skeletal muscles
Reflex Arc
Reflex Arc- neuronal pathway; basic functional unit of nervous system: a) Receptor b) Afferent neuron c) Interneuron d) Efferent neuron e) Effector
3.
4.
3-neuron reflex arc (w/ interneuron) Painful stimulus----action potential (thru dorsal root) ----- spinal cord (synapse with interneuron and motor neurons)---- stimulate flexor muscles to remove limb from source of pain
SPINAL REFLEXES
STIMULUS: Muscle Stretch Functions for maintenance of muscle tone, support agonist muscle contraction and provide feedback about the muscle. Clinically, sensitivity of the stretch reflex and intactness of the spinal cord segment are tested by applying stretch of the deep tendon.
SPINAL REFLEXES
Reciprocal Inhibition: via inhibitory interneuron the same stretch stimulus inhibits the agonist muscle. Reciprocal Innervation: describes the response a stretch stimulus can be on agonist ( Autogenic Facilitation), Agonist ( Reciprocal Inhibition) as well as synergestic muscle ( Facilitation )
Widrawal Reflex
Stimulus: Cutaneous sensory stimuli Reflex arc: cutaneous receptors via interneurons to largely flexor muscles: multi segmental response involving group of muscle. ( Polysynaptic ). Functions as to protective, widrawal mechanism to remove body parts from harmful stimuli.
A - Fibers
Large myelinated ; fast conducting
Alpha proprioception, somatic motor Beta Touch, Pressure Gamma Motor to muscle spindles Delta pain, temperature, touch
B - Fibers
Small, myelinated, conduct less rapidly; Pregaanglionic; Automatic
C Fibers
Smallest, unmyelinated , slowest conducting Dorsal Root : Pain, reflex- response Sympathetic : Post Ganglionic Sympathetic
Flaccidity
Absent of Tone Hypotonia decrease of tone of the muscle. Seen in lower motor neuron lesion; nerve root and peripheral injuries. Also seen initially after suprasegmental/upper motor neuron lesion such as spinal shock and cerebral shock; there is decrease or no resistance in PROM.
SPASTICITY
Seen in Suprasegmental / Upper motor neuron lesion; there is increase resistance to PROM; check to see if increasing speed increases the resistance Spasticity is velocity dependent
Clasp type response: marked resistance to PROM suddenly gives way. Clonus: maintained stretch stimulus produces cyclical, spasmodic contraction, common in plantarflexors, wrist flexors and jaw.
Hoffman s reflex plick of 2nd finger causing clonustype of response Bruxism involuntary clenching of teeth
SPASTICITY
Hyperactive cutaneous reflexes: babinski response : dorsiflexio of a big toe with fanning of the other toes in response to the stroking up the lateral side of the sole of the foot. Indicative of corticospinal tract disruption. Hypereflexia ; increase deep tendon reflexes
RIGIDITY
Increase resistance to PROM that is independent in velocity of movement. Seen in patient with basal ganglia/Nigrostriatal pathway. Increase resistance to passive movement both agonist and antagonist muscle. Lead pipe: uniform throughout range Cog-wheel: interrupted by series of jerks Seen in Parkinson s Dse. Resting Tremor, Bradykinesia Strenght and reflexes are not affected
DECEREBRATE RIGIDITY
Seen in comatose patientwith brainstem lesions between superior colicullus and vestibular nucleus: results in increase tone and sustained posturing of all limbs; TRUNK and Neck into rigid extension.
Electrical synapses
characterized by direct open fluid channels that conduct electricity from one cell to the next. Most of these consist of small protein tubular structures called gap junctions that allow free movement of ions from the interior of one cell to the interior of the next.
Group Ia
Fibers from the annulospiral endings of muscle spindles (average about 17 microns in diameter; these are a-type A fibers in the general classification).
Group Ib
Fibers from the Golgi tendon organs (average about 16 micrometers in diameter; these also are a-type A fibers).
Group II
Fibers from most discrete cutaneous tactile receptors and from the flower-spray endings of the muscle spindles (average about 8 micrometers in diameter; these are b- and gtype A fibers in the general classification).
Group III
Fibers carrying temperature, crude touch, and pricking pain sensations (average about 3 micrometers in diameter; they are d-type A fibers in the general classification).
Group IV
Unmyelinated fibers carrying pain, itch, temperature, and crude touch sensations (0.5 to 2 micrometers in diameter; they are type C fibers in the general classification).
Transmission of Signals of Different Intensity in Nerve Tracts Spatial and Temporal Summation
Spatial Summation.
effect of a moderate stimulus and a strong stimulus, with progressively more fibers being stimulated. Thus, the stronger signals spread to more and more fibers. This is the phenomenon of spatial summation.
Temporal Summation.
A second means for transmitting signals of increasing strength is by increasing the frequency of nerve impulses in each fiber, which is called temporal summation
Neurophysiologic Terms
Encapsulated Exteroceptors
Cutaneousreceptors that located in the dermis, subcutaneous and intermuscular connective tissue, periosteum ligaments, and tendon surfaces. Included in Pacinian corpuscles, Meissner s corpuscle and Krause and bulb. These receptors rapidly adapt to touch , pressure, cold and vibration stimuli.
A Fibers
Fast conducting myelinated somatic nerve fibers that transmit impulse from excited cutaneous capsulated receptors. These fibers may associated with the production of phasic or mobilization responses.
C Fibers
Slow conducting, predominantly unmyelinated somatic nerve fibers that impulse from excited free nerve endings. These fibers may be associated with the production of tonic or stabilizing responses
Proprioceptor
A receptor that located deep within the tissues of the body and response to changes in position, movement and deep pressure.
Muscle, tendons, joints, inner ear.
Muscle Spindle
A proprioceptor located in the skeletal muscle parallel to the extrafusal fiber. The main purpose of the muscle spindle is to provide information regarding muscle length back to CNS.
Intrafusal Fibers
Muscle Fibers located within the muscle spindle. Two types
Nuclear Bag Nuclear Chain
Ib
The nerve fiber that form the afferent nerve supply from the GTO. Unlike the muscle spindle, GTO s do not have efferent innervation.
Renshaw Interneuron
An interneuron that forms part of an inhibitory feedback circuit between the motorneurons to the cell bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal cord. Also exert an inhibitory influence on the inhibitory interneurons that forms a part of the final common pathway to the antagonistic musculature resulted to disinhibition may be equivalent to facilitation of the antagonistic groups. Renshaw Cells can be affected by impulse from higher centers.
somatic senses
the nervous mechanisms that collect sensory information from all over the body. These senses are in contradistinction to the special senses, which mean specifically vision, hearing, smell, taste, and equilibrium.
Tactile Receptors
1. Free nerve ending 2. Meissner s corpuscle 3. expanded tip tactile receptors, one type of which is Merkel s discs. 4. hair end-organ 5. Ruffini s end-organs 6. pacinian corpuscles
Muscle Sensory Receptors Muscle Spindles and Golgi Tendon Organs And Their Roles in Muscle Control
Muscle Spindle